dcsimg

Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

provided by AnAge articles
Maximum longevity: 29.1 years (captivity) Observations: These animals have been reported to live up to 29.1 years in captivity (Richard Weigl 2005).
license
cc-by-3.0
copyright
Joao Pedro de Magalhaes
editor
de Magalhaes, J. P.
partner site
AnAge articles

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

The primary predator of Barbary macaques are large eagles that patrol the mountains for prey. At least one troop member is constantly vigilant for danger. Barbary macaques give a special high-frequency "ah-ah" alarm call when eagles are spotted. Upon hearing this call, they quickly escape to the lower canopy to hide. Less common predators consist of golden jackals and red foxes.

Known Predators:

  • eagles (Accipitridae)
  • golden jackal (Canis aureus)
  • red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Morphology

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Barbary macaques are covered in thick fur that presumably helps protect them from cold temperatures. Body color ranges from yellowish-gray to darker grayish-brown. Their chests and stomachs are much lighter than the rest of their bodies while their faces are often dark pink. Barbary macaques have noticeably short tails, ranging from 1 to 2 cm long. Females average 450 mm from head to tail, weigh about 11 kg, and display estrus with large anogenital swellings. Males are larger, weighing 16 kg and range in length from 550 to 600 mm. Like all cercopithecids, Barbary macaques have large cheek pouches for carrying food. The dental formula of a Barbary macaque is I2/2, C1/1, P2/2, M3/3.

Range mass: 11 to 16 kg.

Range length: 450 to 600 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Life Expectancy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Barbary macaques typically live 22 years in the wild. Males rarely live more than 25 years, and females appear to live slightly longer than males. Infants have a 10% mortality rate in the wild. No data has been reported for captive Barbary macaques.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
22 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
22 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
22.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
20.0 years.

Average lifespan
Sex: male
Status: captivity:
17.0 years.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Habitat

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Barbary macaques prefer habitats consisting of high altitude mountains, cliffs, and gorges. Although they prefer high altitude habitats, up to 2600 m, they can also be found at sea level. Their primary habitat is cedar forests, but they are also found in mixed forests of cedar and holm-cork oak, pure oak forests, shrubby rock outcrops along coasts, and occasionally in grasslands at low elevations. During the winter they are highly arboreal, but become more terrestrial during summer.

Range elevation: 0 to 2600 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest ; scrub forest ; mountains

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Distribution

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Macaca sylvanus inhabits Morocco, Algeria, and Gibraltar. The majority of M. sylvanus are found in the Middle and High Atlas mountains and in the Rif mountain regions of Morocco. A smaller population is located in the Tellian Atlas mountains of Algeria. Within the Atlas mountains, M. sylvanus is restricted to the Grand Kabylie mountains, the Petit Kabylie mountains, and the Chiffa Gorges. In Gibraltar, a population of about 200 are maintained by constant reintroduction of new animals. They are the only non-human primates in Europe.

Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native )

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Behavior

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Barbary macaques display a variety of facial expressions to show emotions. Females show rounded-mouth threats towards other females as a sign of aggression and dominance. Bared teeth show submission. Lip-smacking and teeth-chattering are signs of appeasement which are often directed at a dominant individual or towards infants. Barbary macaques also display relaxed, open-mouthed, play faces which are thought express happiness.

Sounds is a crucial part of communication in primates. Barbary macaques scream and grunt at trespassing troops. They also use a loud, high-pitched "ah-ah" call to warn troop members of potential danger. Mating calls from females during copulation have been shown to increase the likelihood of ejaculation in males. Barbary macaques are capable of recognizing individuals by calls, and mothers can recognize their infants by their cries. Young cry a string of high-pitched calls at dusk, presumably to find their mother in sleeping clusters. Troops are familiar with the vocalizations of neighboring troops as well. Studies have shown calls are learned through experience and different social groups may use different dialects.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Conservation Status

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Barbary macaques are listed as endangered on teh IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species. In Morocco and Algeria they are a federally protected species, but are still in danger of local extinction. Their greatest threat is habitat loss, predominantly from logging. As a result, macaques are pushed farther up mountains into nutrient poor areas where survival is more difficult. Resource competition with domestic goats has become an increasing problem as well. Recently, Barbary macaques have changed their feeding patterns to incorporate more bark and flowers so they can survive. Minor threats include trapping, illegal poaching, and death by herding dogs. About 300 infants are taken out of Morocco annually for pet trade. Barbary macaques are listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: endangered

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Barbary macaques Macaca sylvanus occasionally raid gardens or farms, which has led to trapping and illegal poaching.

Negative Impacts: crop pest

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Due to their low numbers in the wild, Barbary macaques are not commonly used in labs, but some labs still utilize them for biomedical research. There is also a small illegal pet trade for them. In Gibraltar they attract a large number of tourists.

Positive Impacts: pet trade ; ecotourism ; research and education

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Macaca sylvanus is omnivorous and consumes insects, fruit, and other plant materials. This species is an important seed disperser in the mountains where they reside. They are also an important prey item for eagles, golden jackals, and red foxes. Macaca sylvanus is host to a number of ecto- and endoparasites including flatworms, roundworms, sucking lice, parasitic Protozoa (Giardia), and the viruses that cause canine distemper (Paramyxoviridae) and encephalomyocarditis (Picornaviridae), which can sometimes be fatal in M. sylvanus.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • flatworms (Trematoda)
  • roundworms (Nematoda)
  • sucking lice (Anoplura)
  • parasitic protozoa (Giardia)
  • Paramyxoviridae
  • Picornaviridae
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Trophic Strategy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Due to dramatic changes in climate in the mountains throughout the year, the diet of Barbary macaques changes seasonally. During spring, they eat various vegetation and feast on caterpillars that live in oak tress. By summer, fruits are plentiful along with other small seeds, roots, and fungi. Barbary macaques become terrestrial foragers during spring and summer to acquire these foods. Occasionally, they also eat small vertebrates such as frogs and tadpoles. Oaks produce acorns during fall, which Barbary macaques feed on during this time. During periods of particularly high mast production, macaques may subsist on acorns for more than half the year. During winter, ground forage becomes limited and Barbary macaques become arboreal again. Arboreal forage during winter consists of the leaves, seeds, and bark of evergreens.

Animal Foods: amphibians; insects

Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers

Other Foods: fungus

Primary Diet: omnivore

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Reproduction

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Barbary macaques are polygynandrous, as males and females have multiple mates. Females display estrus with large anogenital swellings. Females initiate and terminate matings and compete with each other for mates by interrupting copulation. Male rank has little effect which individuals females choose to mate with. By the time estrus is complete, each female has mated with all or nearly all males in her troop. Often, females continue to copulate even when conception is impossible. At the end of breeding season, the combined number of copulations by all the females in a troop can number in the hundreds. Female promiscuity is thought to mask the true identity of an infant's father resulting in paternal support from more than one male.

Although male Barbary macaques have little influence over who they mate with, dominant individuals tend to mate more often than subordinates and tend to mate more with dominant females. Despite competition for females, male Barbary macaques show high tolerance for each other. They compensate for intense sperm competition by having large testical-size to body-size ratios. Older males have more breeding success than younger individuals. Males use three mating strategies when attracting females. Individuals using "proximity-possession" remain in close proximity to a female, which usually ensures one's opportunity to mate. Others use the "pertinacious strategy", where they closely follow a female until they are noticed and allowed to mate. Lastly, lowest ranking males use a "peripheralize and attract strategy", where they stay far away from the female, but shake branches or carry other infants in full view of the female in order to attract her attention. Successful males then mate with a female, only mounting her once for a short period of time before both part ways.

Barbary macaques are very social. Once infants are born, the entire troop takes part in caring for infants (i.e., cooperative breeding).

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous) ; cooperative breeder

Mating season of Barbary macaques begins in November and ends in December. Gestation last for 164.2 days, on average, and one offspring is usually born between April and June. Barbary macaques typically reach sexual maturity around 46 months of age, regardless of gender. Females remain in estrus for about 1 month and have their first offspring around 5 years of age. Interbirth interval ranges from 13 to 36 months, and the first offspring is generally smaller than subsequent offspring. Females reach menopause during the last 5 years of their lives, though estrus may continue for a few more years. Females often continue to copulate, even when conception is no longer possible.

Although no formal research has been conducted on Barbary macaque infants, in general, newborn primates are altricial and require intense care. Female rhesus macaque, a close relative to Barbary macaques, stay in close contact with their newborns for the first 3 months after birth. In young macaques, weight is often used as a substitute for age. Rhesus macaques are weaned between 1,300 to 1,400 grams. Depending on environmental conditions and resource abundance, infants can be weaned between 200 to 362 days. Average birth weight for Barbary macaques is 450 g.

Breeding interval: Barbary macaques breed once a year.

Breeding season: November to December

Range number of offspring: 1 to 2.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Range gestation period: 158 to 170 days.

Average gestation period: 164.2 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 46 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 46 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; viviparous

Average birth mass: 450 g.

Average number of offspring: 1.5.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
2007 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
1399 days.

Barbary macaques live in matrilineal societies with youngest daughter ascendancy, thus newborn females outrank everyone else in the immediate family except their mothers. Alloparenting is common among Barbary macaques. The entire troop shows interest in newborns and displays friendly teeth-chattering or lip-smacking towards infants. Unlike many primates, Barbary macaques actively take care of unweaned infants more than weaned infants. Females often help "baby-sit" infants of other females. Infants of closely related females and of the highest ranking female usually receive the most attention. Nulliparous females (i.e., females without offspring) engage in infant-carrying more than other females, but this has not been linked to an increase in the survival of their own infants. Females who have recently lost infants are also more likely to carry others' infants. Research suggests that extensive infant handling may allow females to rise in rank. Infants receiving extra care do not experience higher survival rates than those who do not receive extra care.

Due to the promiscuous mating system of Barbary macaques, males have no way of knowing which infant is theirs. As a result, they provide paternal care to infants in their troop. For example, adult males group around infants to protect them from approaching predators. In general, males appear to show preference to male infants. Young-adult males tend to develop strong bonds with male infants, and older adult males prefer to take care of any infants from high-ranking females. Females appear to show mating preference to males that provide the most paternal care to their offspring.

Parental Investment: altricial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Male); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning; maternal position in the dominance hierarchy affects status of young

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Jinn, J. 2011. "Macaca sylvanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Macaca_sylvanus.html
author
Judy Jinn, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Phil Myers, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
John Berini, Special Projects
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Biology

provided by Arkive
Barbary macaques have a diet of fruit, young leaves, bark, roots and occasionally invertebrates. During the winter when food is scarce they forage for bark and evergreen needles (4). As social animals they live in troops of 12 to 60 (average approximately 24) individuals with females forming the core of the troop. Where there is abundant food and little human interference the home range sizes are smaller (2). Males will establish a hierarchy based on the outcome of competitive interactions, though ranking orders change regularly as males age, leave or enter the troop. The strongest and most successful males become dominant and generally do most of the mating, although all males in the troop may potentially mate with females (5). Reproduction may be somewhat seasonal, with births corresponding to highly productive seasons. Females give birth to a single offspring every one or two years, after a gestation of about five months, and twins are rare. The young are weaned after 12 months, and reach sexual maturity at 2.5 and 4 years old in females and 4.5 and 7 years old in males (5). The mating system of this species is fascinating. Females mate with all male members of the troop, so males can never be sure of paternity (4). This promiscuous behaviour encourages males to look after one, or some of the young troop members, spending time grooming, protecting and playing with them, despite not knowing if they are their offspring (5). This may seem like an unselfish act, protecting another macaque's offspring, but because all males in the troop do the same, it is the only way the males can ensure that their offspring will survive. Young females remain within their natal group once they attain sexual maturity, whereas males disperse from their natal group. Becoming accepted into another group is, therefore, critical in the reproductive success of any individual male (5).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Conservation

provided by Arkive
Seen as a symbol of Gibraltar and valued as a tourist attraction, these macaques are protected to some extent (4). In Algeria, this species is protected in several national parks, but there are few active conservation policies elsewhere. There have been proposals to re-introduce them to the Kouf National Park in Libya, and also to re-introduce them to Tunisia (9). The World Conservation Union recommends further population studies of the Barbary macaque, and also the investigation of the bark-stripping problem in Morocco. National park protection must also be implemented more effectively (9).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Description

provided by Arkive
This species' alternative names, the Barbary ape or rock ape are misleading; for though it lacks a tail, as do apes, it is in fact a macaque, belonging to the old world monkeys (4). A large monkey with a silky grey to brown or yellow coat and a dark pink face. Males are somewhat larger than females, though in appearance they are very similar. Like all macaques, they have powerful jaws, long canine teeth, and cheek pouches beside the lower teeth that extend down the sides of the neck (5). These pouches are used to store food when foraging and are able to hold a volume of food as large as the stomach (5).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Habitat

provided by Arkive
In North Africa, this macaque inhabits oak and cedar forests, preferring mid and high altitude forests as well as scrub forest and cliff habitats. The climate is hot and dry in the summer and cold and snowy in the summer (5).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Range

provided by Arkive
This species is found in Algeria, Morocco, and Gibraltar (1). It is the only primate, apart from humans, to live in Europe and the only macaque to live outside of Asia (6) (7). Legend has it that as long as Barbary macaques exist in Gibraltar, the region will remain under British rule. Thus, following an epidemic in the 1900s wiping out the macaque population, local authorities re-introduced them from the African mainland and now protect a small population of about 160 individuals (5).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Status

provided by Arkive
Classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List 2007 (1), and listed on Appendix II on CITES (3).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Threats

provided by Arkive
This species is threatened by habitat loss from logging and human settlements, as well as hunting (8). In Algeria forest fires and livestock grazing are additional problems, and some young animals are captured as pets. In Morocco the problems of logging and overgrazing are exacerbated by drought. Moroccan forestry authorities have considered culling macaques because of their bark stripping. They were once found throughout North Africa but now only exist in small areas (9).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Barbary macaque

provided by wikipedia EN

The Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus), also known as Barbary ape, is a macaque species native to the Atlas Mountains of Algeria, Libya, Tunisia and Morocco, along with a small introduced population in Gibraltar.[2] It is the type species of the genus Macaca. The species is of particular interest because males play an atypical role in rearing young. Because of uncertain paternity, males are integral to raising all infants. Generally, Barbary macaques of all ages and sexes contribute in alloparental care of young.[5]

The diet of the Barbary macaque consists primarily of plants and insects and they are found in a variety of habitats. Males live to around 25 years old while females may live up to 30 years.[6][7] Besides humans, they are the only free-living primates in Europe. Although the species is commonly referred to as the "Barbary ape", the Barbary macaque is actually a true monkey. Its name refers to the Barbary Coast of Northwest Africa.

The population of the Barbary macaques in Gibraltar is the only one outside Northern Africa and the only population of wild monkeys in Europe. Barbary macaques were once widely distributed in Europe, as far north as England, from the Early Pliocene (Zanclean) to the Late Pleistocene.[8] About 300 macaques live on the Rock of Gibraltar. This population appears to be stable or increasing, while the North African population is declining.[2]

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Skull and brain, as illustrated in Gervais' Histoire naturelle des mammifères

The Barbary macaque is first described in scientific literature by Aristotle in the fourth century BCE work History of Animals. He writes of an ape, "Πίθηκος" (/pɪˈθkəs/), with "arms like a man, only covered with hair", "feet [which] are exceptional in kind ... like large hands", and "a tail as small as small can be, just a sort of indication of a tail". It is likely that Galen (129–c.216) dissected the Barbary macaque in the second century CE, presuming the internal structure to be the same as a human. Such was the authority of his work, some mistakes he made were not corrected until Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) proved otherwise over a thousand years later.[9] The Barbary macaque was included in the grouping Simia by Conrad Gessner in his 1551 work Historia Animalium,[9] a name which he claimed was already in use by the Greeks.[10] Gessner's Simia was subsequently used as one of Carl Linnaeus' four primate genera when he published Systema Naturae in 1758. Linnaeus proposed the scientific name Simia sylvanus for the Barbary macaque.[3] During the next 150 years primate taxonomy was subject to great changes and the Barbary macaque was placed in over thirty different taxa.[7] The confusion over the use of Simia became so great that the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) suppressed its use in 1929.[10][7] This meant the Barbary macaque was placed in the next oldest genus assigned to it, Macaca, described by Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799.[7]

Phylogeny

The Barbary macaque is the most basal macaque species.[11][12] Phylogenetic and molecular analyses show it is a sister group to all Asian macaque species. The results of a phylogenetic analysis show that the chromosomes of Barbary macaque resemble those of the rhesus macaque with the exception of chromosomes 1, 4, 9, and 16. It was also discovered that chromosome 18 in the Barbary macaque is homologous to chromosome 13 in humans.[7]

Polymerase chain reaction studies have found Alu element insertions, small pieces of genetic code in genomes, can infer primate phylogenetic relationships. Using this method the phylogenetic relationship of ten species within the genus Macaca has been resolved, showing the Barbary macaque to be a sister group to all other macaques.[11]

Fossil record

Barbary macaque fossils have been found across Europe, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Black Sea, dating from the Early Pliocene (5.3-3.6 million years ago) to the Late Pleistocene, assigned to various subspecies including M. s. sylvanus, M. s. pliocena and M. s. florentina. The insular dwarf M. majori endemic to Sardinia-Corsica during the Early Pleistocene, usually considered to have derived from M. sylvanus, is generally considered a distinct species. Remains from Norfolk, England, dating to the Middle Pleistocene, at 53 degrees latitude, are amongst the northernmost records of non-human primates. The youngest known remains of Barbary macaques in Europe are from Hunas, Bavaria, Germany, dated to 85-40,000 years ago. The distribution of Barbary macaques in Europe was likely strongly controlled by climate, only extending into Northern Europe during interglacial intervals.[8]

Description

Head of individual at the Prague Zoo in Prague, Czech Republic
Skull photographed at the Museum Wiesbaden in Wiesbaden, Germany
Hands and feet

The Barbary macaque has a dark pink face with a pale buff to golden brown to grey pelage and a lighter underside. The colour of mature adults changes with ages.[13][7] In adults and subadults the fur on the back is variegated pale and dark which is due to banding on individual hairs. In spring to early summer, as the temperatures rise, the adult macaques moult their thick winter fur. The species shows sexual dimorphism with males larger than females. The mean head-body length is 55.7 cm (21.9 in) in females and 63.4 cm (25.0 in) in males. The boneless vestigial tail is greatly reduced compared with other macaque species and, if not absent, measures 4–22 mm (0.16–0.87 in). Males may have a more prominent tail, though data is scarce.[7] The average body weight is 9.9–11 kg (22–24 lb) in females and 14.5–16 kg (32–35 lb) in males.[7][14]

Like all Old World monkeys, the Barbary macaque has well-developed sitting pads (ischial callosities) on its rear.[14] Females exhibit an exaggerated anogenital swelling,[15][16] which increases in size during oestrus.[17][18] It has cheek pouches and high-crowned bilophodont molars (molars with two ridges); the third molar is elongated.[14] The diploid chromosome number of the Barbary macaque is 42, like other members of the Old World monkey tribe Papionini.[7]

Distribution and habitat

Barbary macaques at the Ziama Mansouriah in Jijel Province, Algeria

The Barbary macaque is the only macaque species found outside Asia, and only African primate that survives north of the Sahara Desert.[13][2] It lives mainly in fragmented areas of the Rif and the Middle and High Atlas mountain ranges of Morocco and the Grande and Petite Kabylie mountain region of Algeria. It has been recorded at elevations of 400–2,300 m (1,300–7,500 ft), though it seems to prefer higher elevations. The Moroccan and Algerian populations are around 700 km (430 mi) apart, although the gap was smaller during the Holocene.[7]

The Barbary macaque also occurs in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar at the southern tip of Europe's Iberian Peninsula. Gibraltar historian Alonso Hernández del Portillo noted in the early 17th century that the macaques had been present "from time immemorial".[19] Most likely, the Moors introduced macaques from North Africa to Gibraltar during the Middle Ages.[20] During World War II, Winston Churchill ordered for more Barbary macaques to be introduced to Gibraltar to reverse population declines.[19] Today, there are around 300 Barbary macaques in Gibraltar.[2]

It can live in a variety of habitats, such as cedar, fir, and oak forests, grasslands, thermophilous scrub, and rocky ridges full of vegetation in Mediterranean climate with seasonal extremes of temperature.[7][13] In Morocco, most Barbary macaques inhabit Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica) forests, but this could reflect the present habitat availability rather than a specific preference for this habitat.[7] In Algeria, the Barbary macaque inhabits mainly Grande and Petite Kabylia, ranges that form part of the Tell Atlas mountain chain, but there is also an isolated population in Chréa National Park.[21][2] It lives in mixed cedar and holm oak forests, humid Portuguese and cork oak forests, and scrub-covered gorges.[21]

Fossil evidence indicates the species inhabited southern Europe and all of North Africa. Historically, it occurred across North Africa from Libya to Morocco.[2] A Tunisian population was mentioned in the works of ancient Greek writer Herodotus, indicating the species has become extinct there within the last 2,500 years.[7]

Behaviour and ecology

Female Barbary macaque with young suckling

The Barbary macaque is gregarious, forming mixed groups of several females and males. Troops can have 10 to 100 individuals and are matriarchal, with their hierarchy determined by lineage to the lead female.[22] Unlike other macaques, the males participate in rearing the young.[22] Males may spend a considerable amount of time playing with and grooming infants. In this way, a strong social bond is formed between males and juveniles, both the male's own offspring and those of others in the troop. This may be a result of selectivity on the part of the females, who may prefer highly parental males.[5]

The mating season runs from November through March. The gestation period is 147 to 192 days, and females usually have only one offspring per pregnancy. Females rear twins in rare instances. Offspring reach maturity at three to four years of age, and may live for 20 years or more.[23]

Grooming other Barbary macaques leads to lower stress levels for the individuals that do the grooming.[24] While stress levels do not appear to be reduced in animals that are groomed, grooming more individuals leads to even lower stress levels; this is a benefit that might outweigh the costs to the groomer, which include less time to participate in other activities such as foraging. The mechanism for reducing stress may be explained by the social relationships (and support) that are formed by grooming.[24]

Male Barbary macaques interfere in conflicts and form coalitions with other males, usually with related males rather than with unrelated males. These relationships suggest that males do so in order to indirectly increase their own fitness. Furthermore, males form coalitions with closely related kin more often than they do with distantly related kin.[25] These coalitions are not permanent and may change frequently as male ranking within the group changes. Although males are more likely to form coalitions with males who have helped them in the past, this is not as important as relatedness in determining coalitions.[25] Males avoid conflicting with higher ranking males and will more frequently form coalitions with the higher ranking male in a conflict.[25] Close grouping of males occur when infant Barbary macaques are present. Interactions between males are commonly initiated when a male presents an infant macaque to an adult male who is not caring for an infant, or when an unattached male approaches males who are caring for infants. This behaviour leads to a type of social buffering, which reduces the number of antagonistic interactions among males in a group.[22]

An open mouth display by the Barbary macaque is used most commonly by juvenile macaques as a sign of playfulness.[26]

Alarm calls

The main purpose of calls in Barbary macaques is to alert other group members to possible dangers such as predators. Barbary macaques can discriminate calls by individuals in their own group from those by individuals in other groups of conspecific macaques. Neither genetic variation nor habitat differences are likely causes of acoustic variation in the calls of different social groups. Instead, minor variations in acoustic structure among groups similar to the vocal accommodation seen in humans are the likely cause. However, acoustic characteristics such as pitch and loudness are varied based on the vocalizations of individuals they associate with, and social situations play a role in the acoustic structure of calls.[27][28]

Barbary macaque females have the ability to recognize their own offspring's calls through a variety of acoustic parameters. Because of this, infant calls do not have to differ dramatically for mothers to be able to recognize their own infant's call. Mothers demonstrate different behaviours on hearing the calls of other infant macaques as opposed to the calls of their own offspring. More parameters for vocalizations lead to more reliable identification of calls in both infants and in adult macaques so it is not surprising that the same acoustic characteristics that are heard in infant calls are also heard in adult calls.[29]

Mating

Barbary macaques mating

Although Barbary macaques are sexually active at all points during a female's reproductive cycle, male Barbary macaques determine a female's most fertile period by sexual swellings on the female.[30] Mating is most common during a female's most fertile period. The swelling size of the female reaches a maximum around the time of ovulation, suggesting that size helps a male predict when he should mate. This is further supported by the fact that male ejaculation peaks at the same time that female sexual swelling peaks. Change in female sexual behaviour around the time of ovulation is insufficient to demonstrate to the male that the female is fertile. The swellings, therefore, appear necessary for predicting fertility.[18]

Barbary macaque females differ from other nonhuman primates in that they often mate with a majority of the males in their social group. While females are active in choosing sexual associations, the mating behaviour of macaque social groups is not entirely determined by female choice.[30] These multiple matings by females decrease the certainty of paternity of male Barbary macaques and may lead them to care for all infants within the group. For a male to ensure his reproductive success, he must maximize his time spent around the females in the group during their fertile periods. Injuries to male macaques peak during the fertile period, which points to male-male competition as an important determinant of male reproductive success.[30] Not allowing a female to mate with other males, however, would be costly to the male, since doing so would not allow him to mate with more females.[30]

Parenting

Closeup of the face of a juvenile in Gibraltar
A young macaque at the Montagne des Singes, Alsace

Barbary macaques from all age and sex groups participate in alloparental care of infants. Male care of infants has been of particular interest to research because high levels of care from males are uncommon in groups where paternity is highly uncertain. Males even act as true alloparents of infant macaques by carrying them and caring for them for hours at a time as opposed to just demonstrating more casual interactions with the infants. The social status of females plays a role in female alloparental interactions with infants. Higher-ranking females have more interactions, whereas younger, lower-ranking females have less access to infants.[5]

Diet

The diet of the Barbary macaque consists of a mixture of plants and insect prey. It consumes a large variety of gymnosperms and angiosperms. Almost every part of the plant is eaten, including flowers, fruits, seeds, seedlings, leaves, buds, bark, gum, stems, roots, bulbs, and corms. Common prey caught and consumed by Barbary macaques are snails, earthworms, scorpions, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, grasshoppers, termites, water striders, scale insects, beetles, butterflies, moths, ants, and even tadpoles.[7]

Barbary macaques can cause major damage to the trees in their prime habitat, the Atlas cedar forests in Morocco. Since deforestation in Morocco has become a major environmental problem in recent years, research has been conducted to determine the cause of the bark stripping behaviour demonstrated by these macaques. Cedar trees are also vital to this population of Barbary macaques as an area with cedars can support a much higher density of macaques than one without them. A lack of a water source and exclusion of monkeys from water sources are major causes of cedar bark stripping behaviour in Barbary macaques. Density of macaques, however, is less correlated with the behaviour than the other causes considered.[31]

Predators

The Barbary macaque's main predators are the domestic dog,[7] leopard and eagles; the golden eagle may only prey on cubs, since it is morphologically not adapted to hunt primates.[32] The approach of eagles and domestic dogs is known to elicit an alarm call response.[7]

Threats

19th century illustration

Wild populations of Barbary macaques have suffered a major decline in recent years to the point of being declared an endangered species on the IUCN Red List since 2008. The Barbary macaque is threatened by fragmentation and degradation of forest habitat, and poaching for the illegal pet trade; it is also killed in retaliation for raiding crops.[2][33] Today, no accurate data exists on the location and number of individuals out of their natural habitat. An unknown number of individuals are living in zoological collections, at other institutions, in private hands, in quarantine, or waiting to be relocated to appropriate destinations.[2]

The habitat of the Barbary macaque is under threat from increased logging activity.[34] Local farmers regard the Barbary macaque as pest and engage in its extermination. Once common throughout northern Africa and southern Mediterranean Europe, only an estimated 12,000 to 21,000 Barbary macaques are left in Morocco and Algeria. Once, its distribution was much more extensive, spreading east through Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, and north to the United Kingdom. Its range is no longer continuous, with only isolated areas of range remaining. By the Pleistocene, it inhabited the warmer Mediterranean regions of Europe, from the Balearic Islands and mainland Iberia and France in the west, east to Italy, Sicily, Malta, and as far north as Germany and Norfolk in the British Isles.[35] The species decreased with the arrival of the last Last Glacial Period, going functionally extinct on the Iberian Peninsula except for Gibraltar around 30,000 years ago.[36]

The Barbary macaque is threatened by habitat loss, overgrazing, and illegal capture. In Morocco, tourists interact with Barbary macaques in many regions. Information collected in the interviews with inhabitants in the High Atlas of Morocco indicated that the capture of macaques occurs in these regions. Conflict between local people and wild macaques is one of the greatest challenges to Barbary macaque conservation in Morocco. The main threats to the survival of Barbary macaques in this region have been found to be habitat destruction and the impact of livestock grazing, but problems of conflict with inhabitants are also increasing due to crop raiding and the illegal capture of macaques. Human–macaque conflict is mainly due to crop raiding. In the High Atlas of Morocco, macaques attract a large number of tourists every year, and they are favoured for their potential benefits to tourism. In addition, macaques have some ecological roles; for example, they are the predators of several destructive insects and pests of plants and participate in seed dispersal in many plant species.[37][38][39][40][41][42]

In the Central High Atlas, the Barbary macaque occurs in relatively small and fragmented areas restricted to the main valleys at elevations of 700–2,400 m (2,300–7,900 ft). In a 2013 study, researchers reported that they found Barbary macaques in relatively small and fragmented habitats in 10 sites, and that the species no longer occurred in four localities. This could be attributed to habitat degradation, hunting activities, the impact of livestock grazing, and disturbance by people. As deforestation for agriculture and overgrazing continues, the remaining forest becomes increasingly fragmented. Consequently, the Barbary macaque is now restricted to small, fragmented relict habitats.[37]

Human use and tourism

Many of the mistaken ideas about human anatomy contained in the writings of Galen are apparently due to his use of the Barbary macaque, the only anthropoid available to him, in dissections.[43] Strong cultural taboos of his time prevented his performing any actual dissections of human cadavers, even in his role as physician and teacher of physicians.[44]

Macaques in Morocco are frequently used as photo props, despite their protected status.[45] Tourists are encouraged to take photos with the animals for a fee. Macaques are also sold as pets in Morocco and Algeria, and exported to Europe to be used as pets and fighting monkeys, both in physical marketplaces and online.[45][46]

Tourists interact with wild monkeys across the globe, and in some situations, tourists may be encouraged to feed, photograph, and touch the monkeys. Although tourism has the potential to bring in money towards conservation goals and provides an incentive for the protection of natural habitats, close proximity and interactions with tourists can also have significant psychological impacts on the Barbary macaques. Fecal samples and stress-indicating behaviours, such as belly scratching, indicate that the presence of tourists has a negative impact on the macaques. Human activities such as taking photographs cause the animals stress, possibly because the people come too close to the animals and make prolonged eye contact (a sign of aggression in many primates). Macaques that live in areas close to human contact have more parasites and lower overall health than those that live in wilder environments, at least in part due to the unhealthy diets they receive as a result of feeding from humans.[47][48]

Several groups of Barbary macaques can be found in tourist sites, where they are affected by the presence of visitors providing food to them. Researchers comparing two such groups in the central High Atlas mountains in 2008 found that the tourist group of Barbary macaques spent significantly more time engaged in resting and aggressive behaviour, and foraged and moved significantly less than the wild group. The tourist group spent significantly less time per day feeding on herbs, seeds, and acorns than the wild group. Human food accounted for 26% of the daily feeding records for the tourist group, and 1% for the wild-feeding group.[39] Scientists who collected data on the seasonal activity budget and diet composition of the endangered Barbary macaque group inhabiting a tourist site in Morocco found that activity budgets and diet of the study group varied markedly among seasons and habitats. The percentage of daily time spent in foraging and moving was lowest in spring, and the daily time spent in resting was highest in spring and summer. The time budget devoted to aggressive display was highest in spring than the other three seasons. There is an increase in the daily feeding time spent eating flowers and fruits in summer, seeds, acorns, roots and barks in winter and autumn, herbs in spring and summer, and a clear increase in consumption of the human food in spring.[38] The tourist and the wild groups did not differ in the proportion of daily records devoted to terrestrial feeding, but the tourist group spent a significantly lower percentage of daily records in terrestrial foraging, moving and resting, while performing more terrestrial aggressive displays more than the wild group. There was no significant difference between the two groups in the proportion of terrestrial feeding records spent eating fruits; but the tourist group had lower daily percentages of terrestrial feeding on leaves, seeds and acorns, roots and barks, and herbs, while it spent higher daily percentages of terrestrial feeding on human food.[40]

Barbary macaques were traded or perhaps given as diplomatic gifts as long ago as the Iron Age, as indicated by remains found in such sites as Emain Macha in Ireland, dating to no later than 95 BC; an Iron Age hillfort, the Titelberg in Luxembourg; and two Roman sites in Britain.[49]

See also

References

  1. ^ Groves, C. P. (2005). "Species Macaca sylvanus". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Wallis, J.; Benrabah, M.E.; Pilot, M.; Majolo, B.; Waters, S. (2020). "Macaca sylvanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T12561A50043570. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12561A50043570.en. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
  3. ^ a b Linnaeus, C. (1758). "Simia sylvanus". Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Vol. I (Decima, reformata ed.). Holmiæ: Laurentii Salvii. p. 25.
  4. ^ "Macaca sylvanus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
  5. ^ a b c Small, M. F. (1990). "Alloparental behaviour in Barbary macaques, Macaca sylvanus". Animal Behaviour. 39 (2): 297–306. doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80874-7. S2CID 53192425.
  6. ^ Rathke, E. -M.; Berghänel, A.; Bissonnette, A.; Ostner, J.; Schülke, O. (2017). "Age-dependent change of coalitionary strategy in male Barbary macaques". Primate Biology. 4 (1): 1–7. doi:10.5194/pb-4-1-2017. PMC 7041515. PMID 32110686.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Fooden, Jack (2007). Systematic Review of the Barbary Macaque, Macaca sylvanus (Linnaeus, 1758). Fieldiana: Zoology. New series. Vol. 113. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History.
  8. ^ a b Elton, Sarah; O'Regan, Hannah J. (2014). "Macaques at the margins: the biogeography and extinction of Macaca sylvanus in Europe" (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 96: 117–130. Bibcode:2014QSRv...96..117E. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.04.025.
  9. ^ a b McDermott, W. C. (1938). The apes in antiquity. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 88–100.
  10. ^ a b Stiles, Charles Wardell; Orleman, Mabelle Blanche (1927). The nomenclature for man, the chimpanzee, the orang-utan, and the Barbary ape. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 3–10.
  11. ^ a b c Li, Jing; Han, Kyudong; Xing, Jinchuan; Kim, Heui-Soo; Rogers, Jeffrey; Ryder, Oliver A.; Disotell, Todd; Yue, Bisong; Batzer, Mark A. (2009). "Phylogeny of the macaques (Cercopithecidae: Macaca) based on Alu elements". Gene. 448 (2): 242–249. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2009.05.013. PMC 2783879. PMID 19497354.
  12. ^ Hodges, J. K.; Cortes, J. (2006). The Barbary macaque: biology, management and conservation. Nottingham, UK: Nottingham University Press.
  13. ^ a b c Waters, S. S. (2013). "Family Cercopithecidae: Old World monkeys". In Mittermeier, Russell A.; Rylands, Anthony B.; Wilson, Don E. (eds.). Handbook of the mammals of the world. Volume 3. Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 550–639. ISBN 978-84-96553-89-7.
  14. ^ a b c Fleagle, John G. (2013). Primate adaptation and evolution (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. ISBN 9780123786326. OCLC 820107187.
  15. ^ Kuester, J.; Paul, A. (1984). "Female reproductive characteristics in semifree-ranging Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus L. 1758)". Folia Primatologica. 43 (2–3): 69–83. doi:10.1159/000156173. PMID 6519600.
  16. ^ Taub, D. M. (1978). "The Barbary macaque of North Africa". Oryx. 14 (3): 245–253. doi:10.1017/S0030605300015581.
  17. ^ Möhle, U.; Heistermann, M.; Dittami, J.; Reinberg, V.; Hodges, J. K.; Hodges, J. K. (2005). "Patterns of anogenital swelling size and their endocrine correlates during ovulatory cycles and early pregnancy in free-ranging barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) of Gibraltar". American Journal of Primatology. 66 (4): 351–368. doi:10.1002/ajp.20161. PMID 16104035. S2CID 19899619.
  18. ^ a b Brauch, Katrin; Pfefferle, Dana; Hodges, Keith; Möhle, Ulrike; Fischer, Julia; Heistermann, Michael (2007). "Female sexual behavior and sexual swelling size as potential cues for males to discern the female fertile phase in free-ranging Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) of Gibraltar". Hormones and Behavior. 52 (3): 375–383. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.06.001. PMID 17644098. S2CID 30650507.
  19. ^ a b Nosowitz, D. (2019). "The Curious Case of the Last 'Wild' Monkeys in Europe". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 2022-04-03.
  20. ^ Jackson, W.G.F. (1987). "1. Mons Calpe to Djebel Musa". The Rock of the Gibraltarians – A History of Gibraltar. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-8386-3237-8.
  21. ^ a b Taub, David Milton (1977). "Geographic distribution and habitat diversity of the Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus L.". Folia Primatologica. 27 (2): 108–133. doi:10.1159/000155781. PMID 403111.
  22. ^ a b c Deag, J. M (1980). "Interactions between males and unweaned Barbary macaques: testing the agonistic buffering hypothesis". Behaviour. 75 (1): 54–80. doi:10.1163/156853980x00564.
  23. ^ Kuester, J. (1999). "Male migration in Barbary macaques at Affenberg Salam". International Journal of Primatology. 20 (1): 85–106. doi:10.1023/A:1020536317646. S2CID 43112228.
  24. ^ a b Shutt, K.; MacLarnon, A.; Heistermann, M.; Semple, S. (2007). "Grooming in Barbary macaques: better to give than to receive?". Biology Letters. 3 (3): 231–233. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0052. PMC 2464693. PMID 17327200.
  25. ^ a b c Widdig, A.; Streich, W. J.; Tembrock, G. (2000). "Coalition formation among male Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus)". American Journal of Primatology. 50 (1): 37–51. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2345(200001)50:1<37::aid-ajp4>3.3.co;2-v. PMID 10588434.
  26. ^ Preuschoft, S. (1992). ""Laughter" and "smile" in Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus)". Ethology. 91 (3): 220–236. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1992.tb00864.x.
  27. ^ Fischer, J.; Hammerschmidt, K.; Todt, D. (1998). "Local variation in Barbary macaque shrill barks". Animal Behaviour. 56 (3): 623–629. doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.0796. PMID 9784211. S2CID 6947829.
  28. ^ Fischer, J.; Hammerschmidt, K. (2002). "An overview of the Barbary macaque, Macaca sylvanus, vocal repertoire". Folia Primatologica. 73 (1): 32–45. doi:10.1159/000060417. PMID 12065939. S2CID 9791964.
  29. ^ Hammerschmidt, K.; Todt, D. (1995). "Individual differences in vocalisations of young Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus): a multi-parametric analysis to identify critical cues in acoustic signalling". Behaviour. 132 (5): 381–399. doi:10.1163/156853995x00621.
  30. ^ a b c d Kuester, J.; Paul, Andreas (1992). "Influence of male competition and female mate choice on male mating success in Barbary macaques". Behaviour. 120 (3/4): 192–216. doi:10.1163/156853992x00606. JSTOR 4535008.
  31. ^ Ciani, A. C.; Camperio, A.; Martinoli, L.; Capiluppi, C.; Arahou, M.; Mouna, M. (2001). "Effects of water availability and habitat quality on barkstripping behavior in Barbary macaques". Conservation Biology. 15 (1): 259–265. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2001.99019.x. S2CID 86080812.
  32. ^ Bautista, Jesús; Castillo, Salvador; Paz, Joé Luis; Llamas, Jesús; Ellis, David H. (2018). "Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) as potential predators of Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) in northern Morocco: evidences of predation" (PDF). Go-South Bulletin. 15: 172–179.
  33. ^ van Uhm, D. P. (2016). "Monkey business: the illegal trade in Barbary macaques". Journal of Trafficking, Organized Crime and Security. 2 (1): 36–49. hdl:1874/358227.
  34. ^ van Lavieren, E.; Wich, S. A. (2010). "Decline of the endangered Barbary macaque in the cedar forest of the Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco". Oryx. 44 (1): 133–138. doi:10.1017/s0030605309990172.
  35. ^ Von Segesser, F.; Menard, N.; Gaci, B.; Martin, R. D. (1999). "Genetic differentiation within and between isolated Algerian subpopulations of Barbary macaques: evidence from microsatellites". Molecular Ecology. 8 (3): 433–442. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.1999.00582.x. PMID 10199007. S2CID 23657621.
  36. ^ O'Reagan, H. (2008). "The Iberian Peninsula corridor or cul-de-sac? Mammalian faunal change and possible routes of dispersal in the last 2 million years". Quaternary Science Reviews. 27 (23–24): 2136–2144. Bibcode:2008QSRv...27.2136O. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.08.007.
  37. ^ a b El Alami, A.; Van Lavieren, E.; Aboufatima, R.; Chait, A. (2013). "A survey of the endangered Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus in the central High Atlas Mountains, Morocco". Oryx. 47 (3): 451–456. doi:10.1017/s0030605311001463.
  38. ^ a b El Alami, A.; Chait, A. (2012). "Seasonal variation in activity budget and diet of the endangered Macaca sylvanus in the tourist valley of Ouzoud, Central High Atlas, Morocco". Mammalia. 76: 245–250. doi:10.1515/mammalia-2011-0054. S2CID 87795900.
  39. ^ a b El Alami, A.; Van Lavieren, E.; Aboufatima, R.; Chait, A. (2012). "Differences in activity budgets and diet between semiprovisioned and wild-feeding groups of the endangered Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) in the Central High Atlas Mountains, Morocco". American Journal of Primatology. 74 (3): 210–216. doi:10.1002/ajp.21989. PMID 24006539. S2CID 18223816.
  40. ^ a b El Alami, A.; Chait, A. (2013). "Comparison of the terrestriality of Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) between tourist and wild sites in the region of Ouzoud, Morocco". Mammalia. 78 (4): 539–542. doi:10.1515/mammalia-2013-0061. S2CID 87021869.
  41. ^ El Alami, A.; Chait, A. (2014). "Distribution of the endangered Barbary macaque and human-macaque interaction in the tourist region of Ouzoud, central High Atlas of Morocco". African Journal of Ecology. 53 (3): 375–377. doi:10.1111/aje.12191.
  42. ^ El Alami, A.; Chait, A. (2015). "Roles of tourism in the local people opinion regarding human-macaque conflict in the central High Atlas, Morocco". Revue de Primatologie. 7: 1–7.
  43. ^ Ustun, C. (2004). "Galen and his anatomic eponym: vein of Galen". Clinical Anatomy. 17 (6): 454–457. doi:10.1002/ca.20013. PMID 15300863.
  44. ^ Arnold, T. (1932). "Law enforcement: an attempt at social dissection". The Yale Law Journal. 42 (1): 1–24. doi:10.2307/791414. JSTOR 791414. S2CID 150797237.
  45. ^ a b Nijman, V.; Bergin, D.; van Lavieren, E. (2015). "Barbary macaques exploited as photo-props in Marrakesh's punishment square". SWARA (July–September ed.). pp. 38–41.
  46. ^ Bergin, D.; Atoussi, S.; Nijman, V. (2017). "Online trade of Barbary macaques Macaca sylvanus in Algeria and Morocco" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 27 (2): 531–534. doi:10.1007/s10531-017-1434-5. S2CID 41616038.
  47. ^ "Tourists upset Morocco Barbary macaque monkeys". BBC.
  48. ^ "Monkeys and tourism – a price to pay". Archived from the original on 25 March 2015.
  49. ^ Lynn, C. (2003). Navan Fort: archaeology and myth. Bray, Co. Wicklow, Ireland: Wordwell. pp. 49–50. ISBN 9781869857677.

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN

Barbary macaque: Brief Summary

provided by wikipedia EN

The Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus), also known as Barbary ape, is a macaque species native to the Atlas Mountains of Algeria, Libya, Tunisia and Morocco, along with a small introduced population in Gibraltar. It is the type species of the genus Macaca. The species is of particular interest because males play an atypical role in rearing young. Because of uncertain paternity, males are integral to raising all infants. Generally, Barbary macaques of all ages and sexes contribute in alloparental care of young.

The diet of the Barbary macaque consists primarily of plants and insects and they are found in a variety of habitats. Males live to around 25 years old while females may live up to 30 years. Besides humans, they are the only free-living primates in Europe. Although the species is commonly referred to as the "Barbary ape", the Barbary macaque is actually a true monkey. Its name refers to the Barbary Coast of Northwest Africa.

The population of the Barbary macaques in Gibraltar is the only one outside Northern Africa and the only population of wild monkeys in Europe. Barbary macaques were once widely distributed in Europe, as far north as England, from the Early Pliocene (Zanclean) to the Late Pleistocene. About 300 macaques live on the Rock of Gibraltar. This population appears to be stable or increasing, while the North African population is declining.

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN