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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 14.8 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild, animals have been reported to live for 8.5 years (Ronald Nowak 1999). One captive specimen lived for 14.8 years (Richard Weigl 2005).
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The word “hyrax” means “shrewmouse” in Greek. The Hebrew word for Procavia capensis, “Shaphan”, roughly translates into “the hidden one.” In Biblical times, hyraxes were known as “conies”. They are also referred to as dassies or rock dassies in Southern Africa.

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Barbara Lundrigan, Michigan State University
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John Berini, Special Projects
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Behavior

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All of the senses of rock hyraxes are well-developed, although their near-vision is thought to be relatively poor. Hyraxes have a variety of vocal calls. Territorial calls are distinct and genus-specific. In rock hyraxes, territorial calls are loud and repetitious and increase in volume and duration towards the end of the sequence before ending in a series of guttural noises. Adults also emit twittering or whinnying calls and striking alarm calls, which are made when a potential predator is identified. When threatened, they may growl or grind their molars. Infants make only five of the twenty-one sounds used by adults; three of these are vocal, including mewing calls given when they are lost or begging, and two are non-vocal. Between 2 to 15 months of age, young develop all vocal sounds except five; four of which are exclusive to adult females and one is characteristic of adult males.

Rock hyraxes urinate on the sides of rocks near colony sites. Crystallized calcium carbonate present in the excretion makes a white stain used in visual communication. Hyraxes also deposit their droppings and urine in a common latrine, but it is unknown whether this serves any role in olfactory communication. The dorsal gland and hair surrounding it are important for communication among conspecifics. Pheromone production from the dorsal gland increases with increased stimuli. In an aggressive context, pheromone production is accompanied by a slight curling of the upper lip and piloerection of the neck hairs. During territorial calls, males crouch and raise their head with their jaws slightly agape. Hyraxes show submission by presenting their hindquarters, backing away, closing their dorsal gland, and/or flattening their ears. Submissive behaviors are very important, as simple interactions such as approaching or directly staring at another adult might be seen as a threat and the tusks can inflict fatal wounds. To avoid antagonizing other individuals, feeding or huddling individuals usually face away from each other.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Conservation Status

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Although Procavia capensis is classified as a species of least concern on the IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species, current population trends are unknown. While it is hunted for its meat throughout its geographic range and has experienced local extirpations, there are no major threats to the long-term persistence of this species.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Benefits

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In areas where humans are prevalent, especially South Africa, rock hyraxes are sometimes considered pests, as they inhabit road culverts and/or crevices in stone walls. Agricultural plots that have been recently cleared are often bordered by rocks that were removed during clearing, thus providing prime habitat for rock hyraxes. Fields such as these are often used for cultivating fruit trees, upon which hyraxes browse and cause considerable damage. In addition, rock hyraxes are a known reservoir for Leishmania tropica, a flagellate parasite that infects rodents and humans.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Benefits

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Members of Procavia capensis colonies urinate and defecate in designated areas called latrines. As time goes on and more material accumulates, this matter eventually congeals into a large, sticky solid. This substance has been used in a number of applications, including a medicine called hyraceum that has been used to treat epilepsy, convulsions, and a number of female-specific diseases. Procavia capensis is hunted for its meat throughout its geographic range.

Positive Impacts: food ; source of medicine or drug

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Associations

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Rock hyraxes are the dominant herbivores in rocky areas throughout their geographic range. They are preyed upon by a number of different vertebrate species and are known to host up to 25 species of lice.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • lice (Pthiraptira)
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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Barbara Lundrigan, Michigan State University
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Trophic Strategy

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Rock hyraxes are primarily grazers and forage on many different plant species per foraging bought; however, regional preferences have been documented. For example, giant lobelia and certain daisy species are preferred on the west slope of Mt. Kenya, swampy vegetation is eaten close to the bottoms of valleys, and lowland forage includes new shoots, fruits, berries, and figs. Grasses make up 78% of the diet during the wet season, but only 57% during the dry season. When conditions are moist, either during the wet season or after a rainfall, rock hyraxes show a preference for new shoots, buds, and leaves. During drought, they may eat coarse material such as bark, lichens, and liverworts. Daily food consumption varies with body weight, and plant water content has a significant influence on the amount of food that is ingested. Rock hyraxes may travel up to 60 m from their burrows to forage but may travel further during a drought. When grazing, individuals maintain their spacing and remaining vigilant for potential predators.

The feeding habits of rock hyraxes are comparable to those of ungulates. Giraffes and elephants are their most likley competitors for food. Hyraxes can feed very rapidly and entire colonies may spend less than one hour per day feeding. Most feeding is concentrated in two feeding periods of about twenty minutes: one about three hours after sunrise and the other about two hours before sunset. Rock hyraxes do not manipulate or carry their food, and they use their feet only to reach or hold twigs. While foraging, they often hold their head at a 90˚ angle to best utilize their wide gape, and they bite off large amounts of vegetation. By eating large amounts of food quickly, and spending most of their time resting, rock hyraxes are able to survive on resources too sparse or nutrient-poor to support more active mammals of a comparable size.

Plant Foods: leaves; wood, bark, or stems; fruit; bryophytes

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore )

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Barbara Lundrigan, Michigan State University
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John Berini, Special Projects
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Distribution

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Procavia capensis occurs throughout most of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula with the exception of the Congo basin and Madagascar. It is the most arid-adapted of hyrax species, and its range includes dry mountainous regions in the Namib, Sahara, and Arabian deserts.

Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Barbara Lundrigan, Michigan State University
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Habitat

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Procavia capensis is commonly found in arid land habitat including deserts, savannas and scrub forests. It lives in rocky areas with moderate vegetative cover and many rock crevices and cavities, the latter of which are used as shelter. Although it does not burrow, it does inhabit abandoned burrows, including those of aardvarks and meerkats. Even when traveling between suitable habitats, rock hyraxes do not normally stray from areas with some form of cover or refuge.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; scrub forest

Other Habitat Features: agricultural

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Barbara Lundrigan, Michigan State University
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John Berini, Special Projects
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Life Expectancy

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Little information is available regarding the average lifespan of Procavia capensis, however, evidence suggests it can live for up to 12 years in the wild.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
12 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
8.5 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
11.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
14.0 years.

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Barbara Lundrigan, Michigan State University
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John Berini, Special Projects
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Morphology

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Hyraxes are the smallest of the subungulate mammals and are similar in appearance to woodchucks. Members of this species have a single pair of long, strong, tusk-like incisors, and their molars are similar to the cheek teeth of rhinoceroses. Total length for adults ranges from 305 to 550 mm, and tail length ranges from 11 to 24 mm. Hindfoot length ranges from 65 to 76mm, and ear length ranges from 27 to 38 mm. These hyraxes are heavily built for their size, weighing as much as 4.3 kg. Males (4 kg) are slightly larger than females (3.6 kg) and have blunter features and thinner bodies with thicker necks than females. The tusks of males are larger and sharper than those of females. Males also have a larger larynx and larger guttural pouches, which help to amplify their territorial calls. Hyrax eyes contain a special membrane called the umbraculum that is thought to shield the eye from the sun.

The forefeet of Procavia capensis have four toes and are plantigrade, while the hindfeet have three toes and are semi-digitigrade. All of the toes have rounded nails resembling hooves, except the inside rear toe, which is equipped with a claw that is used in grooming. Procavia capensis has mesaxonic feet in which the plane of symmetry passes through the third digit. The soles of the feet have large, black pads that are moistened by sweat glands, increasing their cohesion to rocky substrates.

The coat of Procavia capensis is dense and rough, with a thick undercoat and long guard hairs scattered throughout. Long, black vibrissae, used as haptic receptors, are found on the back and around the mouth. Pelage color is highly variable among subspecies, ranging from gray, to yellow-brown, to dark brown. The dorsum is usually darker than the flanks, and the venter tends to be a paler cream-color. In the cape region of Africa, pelage color corresponds with environmental moisture; animals living in wetter areas have darker coats, and those living in more arid regions have paler coats. A patch on the dorsum is surrounded by longer hairs in a contrasting color that may be black, yellow, or orange. Underneath this patch is a bare spot containing a dorsal gland specific to hyraxes that secretes pheromones, which are likely used to mark rocks and help young imprint on their mother. Pheromone production is most pronounced during mating season.

Range mass: 4.3 (high) kg.

Average mass: 3.8 kg.

Range length: 305 to 550 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes shaped differently; ornamentation

Average basal metabolic rate: 4.954 W.

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Barbara Lundrigan, Michigan State University
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John Berini, Special Projects
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Associations

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Except in high mountainous areas, leopards are the main predator of Procavia capensis. Hyraxes may also be preyed upon by snakes (e.g., Egyptian cobras and puff adders), eagles (e.g., Verreaux’s eagles and martial eagles), owls, jackals, African wild dogs, and various cat species (e.g., servals, caracals and lions). Neonates are sometimes preyed upon by mongooses. Procavia capensis evades predators by staying alert and remaining close to cover while foraging. Individuals immediately respond to the alarm calls of territorial males and to the calls of other species such as bush hyraxes and some birds. Hyraxes also avoid predators by using burrows that are smaller in diameter than most predators in their habitat. They have been known to escape predation by playing dead, or by working together to scare off smaller predators from the safety of a burrow.

Known Predators:

  • Egyptian cobra (Naja anchietae)
  • puff adder (Bitis arietans)
  • Verreaux's eagle (Aquila verreauxii)
  • martial eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus)
  • owls (Strigiformes)
  • jackals (Canis)
  • African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus)
  • serval (Leptailurus serval)
  • caracal (Caracal caracal)
  • lion (Panthera leo)
  • mongooses (Herpestidae)
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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Barbara Lundrigan, Michigan State University
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John Berini, Special Projects
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Reproduction

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Rock hyraxes are polygynous, and a single territorial male can control a harem of 3 to 7 females in a territory of less than 4000 square meters. Prior to copulation, the male usually calls and then approaches a receptive female with his penis and dorsal spot erected while weaving his head. Although there are no visible signs of estrous, the quantity or quality of dorsal-gland secretions may change as a function of estrous. Mating females may attack their mates when they approaching if females are not willing to copulate. A willing female backs into the male and presses her anogenital region against his flank and breast. The male then grasps her with his forelegs for a moment while copulation occurs. Territorial males preferentially mate with mature females. Peripheral males are usually only successful in mating with subadult or young adult females that are under 28 months of age. The structure of the male penis differs between the different genera of hyraxes, thus contributing to reproductive isolation where sympatry occurs.

Mating System: polygynous

Procavia capensis breeds seasonally (e.g., August to November in Kenya) with births synchronized to occur during the rainy season. During the breeding season, there is a significant increase in territoriality evident through dramatically higher rates of calling and aggression in males; these behaviors correspond with an increase in testicle size. Testicles can become more than 20 times larger than their normal size during breeding season. Outside of the breeding season, spermatogenesis does not occur. Gestation lasts from 6 to 8 months, which is unusually long for a mammal of such small size. Extended gestation in P. capensis is thought to reflect the fact that its ancestors were much larger in body size. Females become increasingly aggressive as parturition approaches and temporarily form isolated nursing groups with other pregnant females. Birth takes place in the dark and females make hoarse squeaking noises in time with their contractions. Litter size ranges from 1 to 6, with an average of 2.4, which represents 10.8% of the mother’s weight. Newborns are large and well-developed at birth. They have both eyes fully opened, a complete coat of hair, and weigh 170 to 240 grams. Young can jump by two days old, and by the third or fourth day, they begin to eat food. Newborns are capable of eating solid food by two weeks of age. Weaning is usually complete by three months after birth. Reproductive maturity is achieved at 16 months of age, but young do not reach adult size and weight until three years of age.

Breeding interval: Rock hyraxes breed once yearly

Breeding season: In Kenya, rock hyraxes breed from August to November.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 4.

Average number of offspring: 2.4.

Range gestation period: 6 to 8 months.

Average weaning age: 3 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 16 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 16 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous

Average birth mass: 205 g.

Average number of offspring: 3.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
500 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
500 days.

After birth, neonates are licked clean before they climb onto the back of the mother where they rest on her dorsal gland. This is thought to promote imprinting and keeps young warm and out of the way of other adults. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pectoral and two inguinal, all of which are used in nursing. Nursing may occur inside a burrow or outside on the rocks and occurs at roughly 1.5 h intervals during the first couple of days after birth. There is no information available regarding paternal care in this species.

Parental Investment: precocial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

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Linderman, E. 2011. "Procavia capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Procavia_capensis.html
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Erin Linderman, Michigan State University
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Barbara Lundrigan, Michigan State University
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Behavior

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It seems the Rock Hyrax uses its song for more complex communication than previously understood. One study provides evidence of complex syntactic vocalizations in this small social mammal. It demonstrates the syntax of hyrax calls is significantly different between different regions in Israel and that syntax is more closely related to nearby groups than distant groups. The authors find that this rich syntactic structure, and its geographic correlation suggests the possibility of vocal production learning in the hyrax.
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The Rock hyrax according to MammalMAP

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Rock hyraxes(Procavia capensis)are found throughout sub-Saharan and north-east Africa, and prefer – as their name suggests – rocky outcrops and cliffs, inhabiting abandoned burrows and crevices they use as shelter.

Despite looking like rodents, rock dassies are actually more closely related to the elephant – based on similarities with their primitive ungulate ancestors from the Eocene era, like teeth and bone structure. Regardless, it is so unique that it’s classified in an order of its own, along with its other subspecies.

Rock dassies look like oversized guinea pigs without tails and rounder ears, with thick brown/grey fur and weigh around 4 kilograms. They have short legs with three toes on their back feet and four on the front. On the bottom of their feet, they have thick, rubbery pads, making it easier to move over rocky substrates. The have long, tusk-like incisors, used for biting off large quantities of vegetation. The iris of hyraxes slightly protrudes over the pupil of their eyes, which decreases the amount of sunlight to their eye.

Rocky hyraxes live in colonies of about 50, with territorial males dominating over harems of a few related females and their offspring. These males are constantly on the lookout for predators and rivals.

These dassies have unusually long pregnancies for animals of their size, and have a gestation period of seven or eight months, new-borns being so developed that they are able to jump and run only two days after birth! They bear between two or three infants at a time.

Procavia capensisis listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of mammals, but do occur in many protected areas across its range.

Interesting fact:

Rock hyraxes have designated areas they use as ‘latrines’, and as time goes by, these urine deposits accumulates and eventually congeals into a large, sticky solid. –Seehow scientists are using these deposits to investigate past climate change!

For more information on MammalMAP, visit the MammalMAPvirtual museumorblog.

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Rock hyrax

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The rock hyrax (/ˈh.ræks/; Procavia capensis), also called dassie, Cape hyrax, rock rabbit, and (from some[3] interpretations of a word used in the King James Bible) coney, is a medium-sized terrestrial mammal native to Africa and the Middle East. Commonly referred to in South Africa as the dassie (IPA: [dasiː]; Afrikaans: klipdassie),[4] it is one of the five living species of the order Hyracoidea, and the only one in the genus Procavia.[1] Rock hyraxes weigh 4–5 kg (8.8–11.0 lb) and have short ears.[4]

Rock hyraxes are found at elevations up to 4,200 m (13,800 ft) above sea level[5] in habitats with rock crevices, allowing them to escape from predators.[5][6] They are the only extant terrestrial afrotherians in the Middle East.[note 1] Hyraxes typically live in groups of 10–80 animals, and forage as a group. They have been reported to use sentries to warn of the approach of predators. Having incomplete thermoregulation, they are most active in the morning and evening, although their activity pattern varies substantially with season and climate.

Over most of its range, the rock hyrax is not endangered, and in some areas is considered a minor pest. In Ethiopia, Israel, and Jordan, it is a reservoir of the leishmaniasis parasite.

Along with other hyrax species and the sirenians, this species is the most closely related to the elephant.[7] An unrelated, convergently evolved mammal of similar habits and appearance is the rock cavy of Brazil.

Characteristics

Rock hyraxes are squat and heavily built, with adults reaching a length of 50 cm (20 in) and weighing around 4 kg (8.8 lb), with a slight sexual dimorphism, males being about 10% heavier than females. Their fur is thick and grey-brown, although this varies strongly between different environments, from dark brown in wetter habitats, to light gray in desert-living individuals.[8] Hyrax size (as measured by skull length and humerus diameter) is correlated to precipitation, probably because of the effect on preferred hyrax forage.[9]

Prominent in and apparently unique to hyraxes is the dorsal gland, which excretes an odour used for social communication and territorial marking. The gland is most clearly visible in dominant males.[10]

The rock hyrax has a pointed head, short neck, and rounded ears. It has long, black whiskers on its muzzle.[11] The rock hyrax has a prominent pair of long, pointed tusk-like upper incisors, which are reminiscent of the elephant, to which the hyrax is distantly related. The fore feet are plantigrade, and the hind feet are semi-digitigrade. The soles of the feet have large, soft pads that are kept moist with sweat-like secretions. In males, the testes are permanently abdominal, another anatomical feature that hyraxes share with elephants and sirenians.[10]

Thermoregulation in rock hyraxes has been subject to much research, as their body temperature varies with a diurnal rhythm. Animals kept in constant environmental conditions also display such variation,[10] and this internal mechanism may be related to water balance regulation.[12]

Distribution and geographic variation

The rock hyrax occurs widely across sub-Saharan Africa in disjunct northern and southern populations; it is absent from the Congo Basin and Madagascar. The distribution encompasses southern Algeria, Libya, Egypt, and the Middle East, with populations in Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and the Arabian Peninsula.[2] The northern subspecies was introduced to Jebel Hafeet, which is on the border of Oman and the United Arab Emirates.[13]

The shade of their pelts varies individually and regionally.[14] In particular, the dorsal patches (present in both sexes) of the central populations are very variable, ranging from yellow to black, or flecked. In outlying populations, these are more constant in colour, black in P. c. capensis, cream in P. c. welwitschii, and orange in P. c. ruficeps.[14] A larger, longer-haired population is abundant in the moraines in the alpine zone of Mount Kenya.[15][16]

Subspecies

The subspecies, which are sometimes elevated to full species, are:[14]

  • P. c. capensis (Pallas, 1766)Cape rock hyrax, native to South Africa and Namibia
  • P. c. habessinicus (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1832)Ethiopian rock hyrax, native to northeastern Africa and Arabia
  • P. c. johnstoni Thomas, 1894black-necked rock hyrax, native to central and East Africa
  • P. c. ruficeps (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1832)red-headed rock hyrax, native to the southern Sahara
  • P. c. welwitschii (Gray, 1868)Kaokoveld rock hyrax, native to the Kaokoveld of Namibia

Ecology and behavior

Rock hyraxes build dwelling holes in any type of rock with suitable cavities, such as sedimentary rocks and soil.[17] In Mount Kenya, rock hyraxes live in colonies comprising an adult male, several adult females, and immatures. They are active during the day, and sometimes during moonlit nights.[18] The dominant male defends and watches over the group. The male also marks his territory.

In Africa, hyraxes are preyed on by leopards, Egyptian cobras, puff adders, rock pythons, caracals, wild dogs, hawks, and owls.[19] Verreaux's eagle in particular is a specialist hunter of hyraxes.[20][21] In Israel, the rock hyrax is reportedly rarely preyed upon by terrestrial predators, as their system of sentries and reliable refuges provide considerable protection. Hyrax remains are almost absent from the droppings of wolves in the Judean Desert.[22]

Feeding and foraging

Hyrax making a chewing motion

Hyraxes feed on a wide variety of plant species, including Lobelia[18] and broad-leafed plants.[23] They also have been reported to eat insects and grubs.[11] They forage for food up to about 50 m from their refuge, usually feeding as a group and with one or more acting as sentries from a prominent lookout position. On the approach of danger, the sentries give an alarm call, and the animals quickly retreat to their refuge.[24]

They are able to go for many days without water due to the moisture they obtain through their food, but quickly dehydrate under direct sunlight.[25] Despite their seemingly clumsy build, they are able to climb trees (although not as readily as Heterohyrax), and readily enter residential gardens to feed on the leaves of citrus and other trees.

The rock hyrax also makes a loud, grunting sound while moving its jaws as if chewing, and this behaviour may be a sign of aggression. Some authors have proposed that observation of this behavior by ancient Israelites gave rise to the misconception given in Leviticus 11:4–8 that the hyrax chews the cud,[26] but the hyrax is not a ruminant.[10]

Reproduction

Suckling rock hyrax

Rock hyraxes give birth to two to four young after a gestation period of 6–7 months (long, for their size). The young are well developed at birth with fully opened eyes and complete pelage. Young can ingest solid food after two weeks and are weaned at 10 weeks. After 16 months, they become sexually mature, they reach adult size at 3 years, and they typically live about 10 years.[10] During seasonal changes, the weight of the male reproductive organs (testes, seminal vesicles) changes due to sexual activity. Between May and January in Cape Province, South Africa, the males are inactive sexually. From February onward, the weight of these organs increases dramatically and the males are able to copulate.[27]

Social behavior

Group structure

Hyraxes that live in more "egalitarian" groups, in which social associations are spread more evenly among group members, survive longer.[28] In addition, hyraxes are the first nonhuman species in which structural balance was described. They follow "the friend of my friend is my friend" rule, and avoid unbalanced social configurations.[29] The balance of social interactions within a group is positively correlated to individual longevity, meaning that "it is not the number or strength of associations that an adult individual has (i.e. centrality) that is important, but the overall configuration of social relationships within the group."[30] The reason for such a balanced group configuration, rather than one that is centrally dominated by a few individual hyraxes, was suggested to have to do with the fact that information flow to all members is important in a fragmented habitat as that of the hyrax, making a dominance hierarchy a liability for the survival of the group at large.[30]

Vocalisations

Captive rock hyraxes make more than 20 different noises and vocal signals.[18] The most familiar one is a high trill, given in response to perceived danger.[11] Rock hyrax calls can provide important biological information, such as size, age, social status, body weight, condition, and hormonal state of the caller, as determined by measuring their call length, patterns, complexity, and frequency.[31] More recently, researchers have found rich syntactic structure and geographical variations in the calls of rock hyraxes, a first in the vocalization of mammalian taxa other than primates, cetaceans, and bats.[32] Higher-ranked males tend to sing more often, and the energetic cost of singing is relatively low.[33] A recent study found that snorts, a rare aspect of male hyrax songs, play an important signalling role as well, with increasing snort harshness being associated with "the progression of inner excitement or aggression". It is also positively associated with the singing animal's social status and testosterone levels.[34] Singing has also been shown to be a marker of an individual hyrax's unique identity, where identity is expressed by unique vocal signatures "that are not condition dependent and are stable over years in singers that did not alter their spatial position."[35]

Resting

The rock hyrax spends roughly 95% of its time resting.[10] During this time, it can often be seen basking in the sun, which sometimes involves "heaping", where several animals pile on top of each other. This is thought to be an element of its complex thermoregulation.[36]

Dispersal

Male hyraxes have been categorised into four classes: territorial, peripheral, early dispersers, and late dispersers. The territorial males are dominant. Peripheral males are more solitary and sometimes take over a group when the dominant male is missing. Early-dispersing males are juveniles that leave the birth site around 16 to 24 months of age. Late dispersers are also juvenile males, but they leave the birth site much later, around 30 or more months of age.[37]

Names

The species is known as klipdas in Afrikaans (etymology: cliff + badger), while most people just call them "dassies" (the plural of dassie) or "rock rabbits" in South Africa. The Swahili names for them are pimbi, pelele, and wibari, though the latter two names are nowadays reserved for the tree hyraxes.[38] This species has many subspecies, many of which are also known as rock or Cape hyrax, although the former usually refers to African varieties.

In Arabic, the rock hyrax is called الوبر الصخري (Alwabr alsakhri) or طبسون (tabsoun). In Hebrew, the rock hyrax is called שפן סלע (shafan sela), meaning rock shafan, where the meaning of shafan is obscure, but is colloquially used as a synonym for rabbit in modern Hebrew.[26] According to Gerald Durrell, local people in Bafut, Cameroon, call the rock hyrax the n'eer.[39]

Naturopathic use

Rock hyraxes produce large quantities of hyraceum, a sticky mass of dung and urine that has been employed as a South African folk remedy in the treatment of several medical disorders, including epilepsy and convulsions.[40] Hyraceum is now being used by perfumers, who tincture it in alcohol to yield a natural animal musk.[41]

In culture

The rock hyrax is classified as treif (not kosher; unclean) according to kashrut – Jewish food hygiene rules – due to statements in the Old Testament in Leviticus 11:5: "And the coney, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you".[42] Hyraxes are also mentioned in Proverbs 30:26 as one of a number of remarkable animals for being small but exceedingly wise, in this case because "the conies are a people not mighty, yet they make their homes in the cliffs".[43]

In Joy Adamson's books and the film Born Free, a rock hyrax called Pati-Pati was her companion for six years before Elsa and her siblings came along; Pati-Pati reportedly took the role of nanny and watched over them with great care.[44]

The 2013 animated film Khumba features a number of rock hyraxes that sacrifice one of their own to a white Verreaux's eagle.

Gallery

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The marine dugong is also present in the area.

References

  1. ^ a b Shoshani, J. (2005). "Order Hyracoidea". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  2. ^ a b Butynski, T.; Hoeck, H.; Koren, L. & de Jong, Y.A. (2015). "Procavia capensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T41766A21285876. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T41766A21285876.en. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
  3. ^ Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers (Leviticus 11:5)
  4. ^ a b "Hyrax". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
  5. ^ a b George A. Feldhamer; Lee C. Drickamer; Stephen H. Vessey; Joseph F. Merritt; Carey Krajewski (2007). Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology. JHU Press. p. 376. ISBN 9780801886959.
  6. ^ Adrienne Gear (2008). Nonfiction Reading Power: Teaching Students how to Think While They Read All Kinds of Information. Pembroke Publishers Limited. p. 105. ISBN 9781551382296.
  7. ^ Jane B. Reece; Noel Meyers; Lisa A. Urry; Michael L. Cain; Steven A. Wasserman; Peter V. Minorsky (2015). Campbell Biology Australian and New Zealand Edition. Pearson Higher Education AU. p. 470. ISBN 9781486012299.
  8. ^ Bothma, J.d.P. (1966). "Color Variation in Hyracoidea from Southern Africa". Journal of Mammalogy. 47 (4): 687–693. doi:10.2307/1377897. JSTOR 1377897.
  9. ^ Klein, R.G.; CruzUribe (1996). "Size variation in the rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) and late Quaternary climatic change in South Africa". Quaternary Research. 46 (2): 193–207. Bibcode:1996QuRes..46..193K. doi:10.1006/qres.1996.0059. S2CID 140669754.
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  11. ^ a b c "The Living Desert - Rock Hyrax". Archived from the original on 2008-12-05. Retrieved 2009-04-27.
  12. ^ Meltzer, A. (1973) Heat balance and water economy of the rock hyrax (Procavia capensis syriaca Schreber 1784). Unpubl. Ph.D. dissert., Tel-Aviv Univ., Israel, 135 pp.
  13. ^ Edmonds, J.-A.; Budd, K. J.; Al Midfa, A. & Gross, C. (2006). "Status of the Arabian Leopard in United Arab Emirates" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 1): 33–39.
  14. ^ a b c Kingdon, Jonathan (2015). The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals (2 ed.). Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 296–297. ISBN 9781472921352.
  15. ^ Coe, Malcolm James. (1967). The ecology of the Alpine zone of Mount Kenya. Dr. W. Junk. OCLC 559542.
  16. ^ Lonely Planet Publications (Firm), issuing body. (June 2018). Kenya. ISBN 9781787019003. OCLC 1046678247.
  17. ^ Sale, J. B. (1966). "The habitat of the rock hyrax". Journal of the East African Natural History Society. 25: 205–214.
  18. ^ a b c Young, T. P., & Matthew, R. E. (1993). Alpine vertebrates of Mount Kenya, with particular notes on the rock hyrax. East Africa Natural History Society.
  19. ^ Turner, M. I. M.; Watson, R. M. (1965). "An introductory study on the ecology of hyrax (Dendrohyrax brucei and Procavia johnstoni) in the Serengeti National Park". African Journal of Ecology. 3: 49–60. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1965.tb00737.x.
  20. ^ Estes, R. D. (1999). The Safari Companion. Chelsea Green Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-890132-44-6.
  21. ^ Unwin, M. (2003). Southern African Wildlife. Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-060-2.
  22. ^ Margolis, E. (2008). "Dietary composition of the wolf Canis lupus in the Ein Gedi area according to analysis of their droppings (in Hebrew)". Proceedings of the 45th Meeting of the Israel Zoological Society.
  23. ^ "Nature Niche-The Rock Hyrax(Procavia capensis)". Archived from the original on 2009-03-24. Retrieved 2009-04-27.
  24. ^ Kotler, B. P.; Brown, J. S.; Knight, M. H. (1999). "Habitat and patch use by hyraxes: there's no place like home?". Ecology Letters. 2 (2): 82–88. doi:10.1046/j.1461-0248.1999.22053.x.
  25. ^ African Wildlife Foundation: Hyrax
  26. ^ a b Slifkin, N. (2004). "Shafan — The Hyrax" (PDF). The camel, the hare & the hyrax: a study of the laws of animals with one kosher sign in light of modern zoology. Southfield, MI; Nanuet, NY: Zoo Torah in association with Targum, Feldheim. pp. 99–135. ISBN 978-1-56871-312-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-06-16.
  27. ^ Glover, T.D.; Millar, R.P. (1970). "Seasonal Changes in the Reproductive Tract of the Male Rock Hyrax". Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. 23 (3): 497–499. doi:10.1530/jrf.0.0230496.
  28. ^ Barocas, A.; Ilany, A.; Koren, L.; Kam, M.; Geffen, E. (2011). "Variance in Centrality within Rock Hyrax Social Networks Predicts Adult Longevity". PLOS ONE. 6 (7): e22375. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...622375B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022375. PMC 3144894. PMID 21818314.
  29. ^ Ilany, A.; Barocas, A.; Koren, L.; Kam, M.; Geffen, E. (2013). "Structural balance in the social networks of a wild mammal". Animal Behaviour. 85 (6): 1397–1405. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.03.032. S2CID 28628927.
  30. ^ a b Barocas, Adi; Ilany, Amiyaal; Koren, Lee; Kam, Michael; Geffen, Eli (2011-07-27). "Variance in Centrality within Rock Hyrax Social Networks Predicts Adult Longevity". PLOS ONE. 6 (7): e22375. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...622375B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022375. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3144894. PMID 21818314.
  31. ^ Koren, L.; Geffen, E. (2009). "Complex call in male rock hyrax (Procavia capensis): a multi-information distributing channel". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 63 (4): 581–590. doi:10.1007/s00265-008-0693-2. S2CID 23659460.
  32. ^ Kershenbaum, A.; Ilany, A.; Blaustein, L.; Geffen E. (2012). "Syntactic structure and geographical dialects in the songs of male rock hyraxes". Proceedings of the Royal Society. B (1740): 1–8. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.0322. PMC 3385477. PMID 22513862.
  33. ^ Ilany, A.; Barocas, A.; Kam, M.; Ilany, T.; Geffen, E. (2013). "The energy cost of singing in wild rock hyrax males: evidence for an index signal". Animal Behaviour. 85 (5): 995–1001. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.02.023. S2CID 43767291.
  34. ^ Weissman, Yishai A.; Demartsev, Vlad; Ilany, Amiyaal; Barocas, Adi; Bar-Ziv, Einat; Koren, Lee; Geffen, Eli (2020-08-01). "A crescendo in the inner structure of snorts: a reflection of increasing arousal in rock hyrax songs?". Animal Behaviour. 166: 163–170. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.06.010. ISSN 0003-3472. S2CID 220499081.
  35. ^ Koren, Lee; Geffen, Eli (2011-04-01). "Individual identity is communicated through multiple pathways in male rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) songs". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 65 (4): 675–684. doi:10.1007/s00265-010-1069-y. ISSN 1432-0762. S2CID 40657166.
  36. ^ "The Creature Feature: 10 Fun Facts About the Rock Hyrax (Or, Are You Ready to Rock Hyrax?)". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2021-09-21.
  37. ^ "Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens: Things to See and do". Archived from the original on 2009-07-09. Retrieved 2009-04-27.
  38. ^ Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Dassy" . Encyclopedia Americana.
  39. ^ Durrell, G. (1954). The Bafut Beagles. Rupert Hart-Davies.
  40. ^ Olsen, A., Prinsloo, L. C., Scott, L., Jägera, A, K. (2008) "Hyraceum, the fossilized metabolic product of rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis), shows GABA-benzodiazepine receptor affinity". South African Journal of Science 103.
  41. ^ Profumo, Dominique Dubrana aka AbdesSalaam Attar for La Via del. "Hyraceum - Perfumetherapy - Procavia Capensis - 100% Natural Perfumes Made in Italy". www.profumo.it. Retrieved 2017-09-21.
  42. ^ Leviticus 11:4–5; Deuteronomy 14:7
  43. ^ Prov 30:26, KJB
  44. ^ Adamson, J. (1961). Elsa – The Story Of A Lioness, London: Collins & Harvill Press. P. 3.

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Rock hyrax: Brief Summary

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The rock hyrax (/ˈhaɪ.ræks/; Procavia capensis), also called dassie, Cape hyrax, rock rabbit, and (from some interpretations of a word used in the King James Bible) coney, is a medium-sized terrestrial mammal native to Africa and the Middle East. Commonly referred to in South Africa as the dassie (IPA: [dasiː]; Afrikaans: klipdassie), it is one of the five living species of the order Hyracoidea, and the only one in the genus Procavia. Rock hyraxes weigh 4–5 kg (8.8–11.0 lb) and have short ears.

Rock hyraxes are found at elevations up to 4,200 m (13,800 ft) above sea level in habitats with rock crevices, allowing them to escape from predators. They are the only extant terrestrial afrotherians in the Middle East. Hyraxes typically live in groups of 10–80 animals, and forage as a group. They have been reported to use sentries to warn of the approach of predators. Having incomplete thermoregulation, they are most active in the morning and evening, although their activity pattern varies substantially with season and climate.

Over most of its range, the rock hyrax is not endangered, and in some areas is considered a minor pest. In Ethiopia, Israel, and Jordan, it is a reservoir of the leishmaniasis parasite.

Along with other hyrax species and the sirenians, this species is the most closely related to the elephant. An unrelated, convergently evolved mammal of similar habits and appearance is the rock cavy of Brazil.

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