Ol'wife

The queen triggerfish is often found drifting close to the bottom, where it feeds on a range of molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms (4). The strong jaws and long teeth of this fish enable it to bite through the hard body parts of these marine creatures with ease (4). It specialises on feeding on a particular sea urchin (Diadema antillarium), and has evolved an ingenious way of tackling this spiny prey; it blows water under the sea urchin to overturn it, exposing the part of the sea urchin where the spines are shortest (2). Little information is available on the breeding biology of this species, although it is known that triggerfish lay eggs which stick to corals, rocks and algae (4). The eggs are somewhat protected by being camouflaged (4), and are also apparently guarded by the male (2). As adults, queen triggerfish are protected by the erectile spine on their backs. If threatened, the triggerfish will retreat into a crevice in the reef, the spine on its back locks into position, and the predator is unable to remove the fish from its shelter (4).

The queen triggerfish occurs in a number of protected marine areas throughout its range, such as Saba Marine Park and Hol Chan Marine Reserve in the Caribbean, of which some areas are designated no-fishing zones (8).

The deep-bodied queen triggerfish has suitably regal colouring; it is a flamboyant, and variable, mixture of blue, green and yellow, which can be light or dark depending on the fish's mood (3), and vivid blue lines pattern the head and the fins (2). Triggerfish are named after the spines situated on their backs. The first large spine can be erected and then locked into place by the second smaller spine which fits into a groove in the first spine (3). This clever locking mechanism enables triggerfish to wedge themselves into crevices when they feel threatened (3), and the first spine can only be folded away when the second 'trigger' spine is depressed (2). The eyes, which are set high on the fish's head (2), are capable of moving independently of each other (4), and the small mouth bears large, stout teeth (2).

The queen triggerfish inhabits coral reefs and nearby sandy and rubble areas, from shallow waters down to depths of 50 metres (3).

Occurs in the Atlantic Ocean (1), from Bermuda and the northern Gulf of Mexico, south to Brazil, and east to Ascension Island and the eastern Atlantic (2).

Classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List 2007 (1).

Little information is available on the status of the queen triggerfish, but it is known that this striking species is a commercially important food fish (5), vulnerable to trapping and spear-fishing (6). It may also be susceptible to the detrimental impacts of changes in the abundance of its primary food source; in 1983 and 1984, the sea urchin Diadema antillarum underwent massive mortality on reefs throughout the Caribbean. Luckily, the queen triggerfish shows some resilience to such events, as it was found that the fish sought out alternative prey species (5) (7).

Greenish or bluish gray on back, orange-yellow on lower part of head and abdomen, with two broad diagonal curved bright blue bands running from snout to below and in front of pectoral fins, the lowermost continuous with a blue ring around lips; a broad blue bar across caudal peduncle, and blue sub-marginal bands in median fins (Ref. 13442).

Dorsal spines (total): 3; Dorsal soft rays (total): 29 - 32; Analspines: 0; Analsoft rays: 27 - 29

Found in coral reef environments, near the bottom, from shallow sandy or grassy areas to the upper slope of the reef. Employs different feeding behaviours to capture and manipulate different type of prey, for example, it uses suction feeding to capture worms and other soft prey, while it feeds on crabs and sea urchins by directly biting off parts of the prey (Ref. 45549). Sessile invertebrate feeder (Ref. 57616).

Found over rocky or coral areas (Ref. 5217). May form schools, sometimes solitary over sand and grassy areas. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates (Ref. 4727). It preys on sea urchins by blowing water to overturn it and then attacks it where the spines are short (Ref. 9710). Excellent food fish but occasionally can cause intoxication due to the liver.

fisheries: minor commercial; gamefish: yes; aquarium: commercial; price category: medium; price reliability: very questionable: based on ex-vessel price for species in this family

Balistes vetula Linnaeus

MUSCLES OF THE CHEEK

ADDUCTOR MANDIBULAE (Figures 78, 79; and Figure 87a of Balistapus undulatus: A 1α A 1β, A 2α, A 2β, A 2γ, A 3).—Section A 1 is separable into two portions, one superficial (A 1α) and the other deep (A 1β). The former originates from the lateroventral faces of the ethmoid and prefrontal, the infraorbital ligament and the anterodorsal face of the hyomandibular. A 1β is small, and originates from the lateral metapterygoid and mesopterygoid, being completely overlain by A 1α. The two sections insert by a common tendon on the posteroventral and ventromedial faces of the maxilla. A 2 is also subdivided into two parts. A 2α is superficial and originates from the lateroventral ethmoid, the prefrontal, the infraorbital ligament and the lateral hyomandibular. It is separated from A 2β by the path of ramus mandibularis V, which emerges beneath the maxilla. The section largely overlaps the subdivisions of A 1, and also covers the more dorsal portion of A 2β. The latter section originates from the anterior hyomandibular, anterodorsal preopercle, and the lateral metapterygoid. A 2 γ develops along the ventrolateral extent of the preopercle. The sections of A 2 insert broadly on the posterodorsomedial face of the dentary with some fibers of the first two sections inserting on the maxillomandibular ligament. A deep section, arising from the lateral faces of the symplectic, quadrate, and metapterygoid appears to represent A 3. It fuses with the tendon of A 2β anteriorly.

LEVATOR ARCUS PALATINI (Figure 78: L.A.P.).—The muscle is fairly small, and originates from the ventral face of the orbital process of the sphenotic and the anterodorsal pterotic. The fibers pass anteroventrally to insert on the anterodorsal face of the hyomandibular.

DILATATOR OPERCULI (Figure 78: D.O.).—Normally in the shape of an inverted triangle, this muscle has inverted its shape anteriorly, the somewhat tendinous apex arising from the orbital process of the sphenotic. Some of the medial fibers are continuous with the posterolateral fibers of the levator arcus palatini. The more posterior fibers arise from the ventrolateral face of the sphenotic. Insertion is along the dorsolateral face of the opercle.

LEVATOR OPERCULI (Figure 78: L.O.).—Origin from the anteroventrolateral pterotic and the anterior supracleithrum, the fibers inserting on posterodorsolateral face of the opercle.

ADDUCTOR ARCUS PALATINI (Figure 79: A.A.P.).—The fibers arise from the anterolateral ethmoid and the lateral parasphenoid in front of the orbit. The more anterior fibers course in an increasingly anteroventrolateral direction. These fibers are anterodorsally continuous with the anteroventral fibers of the retractor arcus palatini. Insertion is on the medial and dorsal faces of the mesopterygoid, metapterygoid, and the hyomandibular.

RETRACTOR ARCUS PALATINI (Figures 78, 79: R.A.P.).—The muscle originates from the ventral surface of the lateral flange of the ethmoid, the lateral face of that bone, and the lateral parasphenoid. It consists of two subsections. The more anterior, superficial fibers insert on the shaft of the palatine and the ectopterygoid. From the dorsal process of the ectopterygoid, a tendinous fascia passes back to below the prefrontal, separating the subsections completely posteriorly. The posteroventral subsection is covered by a thick fascia, to which many of the fibers attach. It inserts on the dorsal faces of the mesopterygoid and metapterygoid. The fibers mingle with those of the adductor arcus palatini anteroventrally and those of the dorsal subsection anterodorsally. Both subsections are served by the same branch of the ramus buccalis that serves the adductor arcus palatini.

ADDUCTOR OPERCULI (Figure 80: AD.OP.).—Origin is from the anterolateral pterotic and lateral prootic. The fibers pass anteroventrolaterally to insert on the dorsomedial face of the opercle.

ADDUCTOR HYOMANDIBULAE (Figure 80: A.H.).—The muscle originates behind and above the adductor operculi from the anteroventrolateral faces of the pterotic and prootic. It inserts on the dorsomedial face of the hyomandibular, immediately below the articulation with the skull.

MUSCLES OF THE HYOID REGION

INTERMANDIBULARIS.—Lying immediately behind the symphysis of the halves of the lower jaw, this muscle (which is wholly dorsal to the protractor hyoidei) connects the posterodorsomedial faces of the left and right dentaries.

PROTRACTOR HYOIDEI (Figure 78: PR.HY.).—There appear to be two sections of this muscle. A superficial division originates completely from the skin and joins the deeper section before inserting on the posteroventral margin of the lower jaw. The larger inner portion originates almost entirely from the lateral faces of the branchiostegal rays and the anterohyal. There is some separation into three longitudinal bundles posteriorly. The more ventral fibers meet their artimeres in the ventral midline.

HYOHYOIDEUS INFERIORIS (Figure 78: HY.IN.).—The fibers arise from a midventral raphe underlying the anteroventral region of the urohyal and pass dorsolaterally to insert along the ventral face of the anterohyal.

HYOHYOIDEI ABDUCTORES (Figure 78: H.AB.).—The muscles serve the ventral five branchiostegal rays. The muscle to the first ray is much enlarged and sheetlike. The fibers from the other four sections join that from the first ray and attach anteriorly to the ventromedial faces of the anterohyal, dorsohyal, and ventrohyal.

HYOHYOIDEI ADDUCTORES (Figure 78: H.AD.).—The muscle is in the form of a continuous sheet covering the wall of the opercular cavity. Fibers arise from the fascia over the sternohyoideus and sternobranchialis and pass dorsolaterally, fading out in the connective tissue beneath the opercle and subopercle. The branchiostegal rays are buried in the same connective tissue as the muscle fibers, but there is little direct attachment.

STERNOHYOIDEUS (Figures 78, 80: STH.).—The posterolateral fibers are continuous with the anterolateral fibers of the obliquus inferioris. The more medial fibers arise from the anteroventral face of the cleithrum. A partially separated bundle of fibers originates from the anteroventral tip of the cleithrum and passes almost dorsally to the posteroventral tip of the urohyal. The muscle inserts broadly on the urohyal, with some attachment to the posteroventromedial face of the ventrohyal.

STERNOBRANCHIALIS (Figures 80, 81: STB.).—The muscle originates from the anteroventral face of the cleithrum, and passes vertically upward to split into three sections. The anteriormost inserts on the posteroventral tip of the urohyal, the middle section inserting on the ventromedial face of hypobranchial 3. The third section joins its antimere ventral to the rectus communis.

VENTRAL BRANCHIAL MUSCLES

PHARYNGOCLAVICULARIS EXTERNUS (Figures 80, 81: PHC.E.).—Originating from the cleithrum immediately behind the sternobranchialis, the muscle courses posterodorsally to insert on the anteroventral face of ceratobranchial 5.

PHARYNGOCLAVICULARIS INTERNUS (Figures 80, 81: PHC.I.).—The muscle originates from the anteromedial face of the cleithrum. It passes anteriorly to insert on the ventromedial bases of ceratobranchials 4 and 5.

OBLIQUI VENTRALES I–III (Figure 81: OBL.V.).—These muscles connect the ventral faces of the ceratobranchials and hypobranchials of the first three arches. In the case of obliquus III, most of the fibers from the ceratobranchial attach to the arch-shaped ligament between the ventral processes of the third hypobranchials, the section actually inserting on the ventral process of hypobranchial 3 being fairly distinct.

TRANSVERSI VENTRALES IV–V (Figure 81: TR.V.).—The anterior muscle connects the anteroventromedial faces of the fourth ceratobranchials across the ventral midline. There are two sections to the posterior muscle. The anterior of these lies between the extreme anteroventromedial tips of the fifth ceratobranchials and is small. There is a small hiatus between it and the posterior section, which lies ventral to the sphincter oesophagi.

RECTI VENTRALES I, II, IV (Figures 80, 81: RECT.V.).—The first rectus joins the anteroventrolateral face of ceratobranchial 1 to the posterodorsal face of the dorsohyal. Some of the posteromedial fibers are continuous with those of obliquus ventralis I. Rectus II arises from the dorsolateral face of the urohyal and attaches to the posterolateral face of ceratobranchial 2. Rectus IV is represented by two sections. The more ventral one arises from the ventral face of ceratobranchial 4 and passes anteromedially to attach to the posterior face of the arch-shaped ligament between the third hypobranchial processes. The other section arises from the dorsolateral face of ceratobranchial 4 and attaches to the dorsomedial face of hypobranchial 3. This latter muscle is apparently a derivative of obliquus ventralis III.

RECTUS COMMUNIS (Figures 80, 81: R.COMM.).—Origin is from the dorsolateral urohyal. The fibers pass posteriorly, grading into an aponeurosis at about the level of the third hypobranchial. The tendon lies medial to the pharyngoclavicularis externus and lateral to the pharyngoclavicularis internus, and inserts on the ventrolateral face of ceratobranchial 5.

DORSAL BRANCHIAL MUSCLES

LEVATORES EXTERNI I–V (Figure 80: L.EXT.).—The first four levators originate from the ventral surface of the prootic shelf and pass ventrally to the dorsolateral faces of epibranchials 1–4. The muscle to the third arch is not well developed. A fifth levator is present, inserting on the dorsal tip of the fifth ceratorbranchial, the more anterior fibers fusing with the posterior region of levator IV. This muscle appears to be divided into two sections by a myocomma, which seems to cast aspersions on a theory postulating its development solely from levator IV.

LEVATORES INTERNI II–III (Figure 82: L.INT.).—These muscles originate one on either side of the facial foramen on the ventral surface of the prootic. The anterior muscle inserts on the dorsomedial face of infrapharyngobranchial 2, the posterior one inserting on infrapharyngobranchial 3.

OBLIQUUS DORSALIS III (Figure 82: OBL.D.).—There are two sections of this muscle. The anterior one connects the anterodorsal face of epibranchial 3 to the anterior and lateral faces of infrapharyngobranchial 3. The posterior part passes from the dorsal face of epibranchial 3 to the dorsomedial face of infrapharyngobranchial 3.

OBLIQUUS POSTERIOR (Figure 82: OBL.P.).—The muscle connects the dorsomedial face of ceratobranchial 5 with the posterolateral face of epibranchial 4.

TRANSVERSI DORSALES II–III (Figure 82: TR.D.).—The anterior muscle originates from the ventrolateral parasphenoid, with some posterior fibers from a raphe in the dorsal midline. The fibers insert on the dorsal face of epibranchial 2. The posterior muscle arises from the dorsal midline and inserts primarily on epibranchial 3, with some fibers to epibranchial 4.

RETRACTOR DORSALIS (Figure 82: D.RETR.).—A well-developed muscle, arising from the lateral and ventral faces of the basioccipital and inserting on the dorsomedial region of infrapharyngobranchial 3.

ADDUCTORES IV–V (Figure 82: AD.).—The muscle of the fourth arch spans the medial side of the articulation between the epibranchial and ceratobranchial. Adductor V connects the anterodorsal tip of ceratobranchial 5 and the posterodorsal face of epibranchial 4.

SPHINCTER OESOPHAGI (Figures 81, 82: S.O.).—The muscle encircles the esophagus, attaching mainly to the posterior margins of the fifth ceratobranchials, and lying above transversus ventralis V. Dorsally it attaches to epibranchial 4, with a few fibers passing to infrapharyngobranchial 3. There is a small bundle of fibers crossing the dorsal midline above the retractor dorsalis.

MUSCLES OF THE PECTORAL REGION

ABDUCTOR SUPERFICIALIS (Figure 78: ABD.S.).—Origin is from the posterolateral face of the cleithrum, the fibers passing posterodorsally to insert on the dorsal bases of the principal fin rays.

ABDUCTOR PROFUNDUS (Figures 78, 80: ABD.P.).—The fibers originate almost exclusively from the anterolateral face of the coracoid, a few fibers coming from the posterolateral cleithrum. The muscle inserts on the ventrolateral bases of the principal fin rays and on the lateral base of the lateral half of the vestigial ray.

ARRECTOR VENTRALIS (Figures 78, 80: ARR.V.).—The muscle originates from the posterolateral face of the cleithrum and inserts on the lateral face of the medial half of the vestigial fin ray.

ADDUCTOR SUPERFICIALIS (Figure 83: ADD.S.).—Origin is from the anteroventral face of the postcleithrum and the posteromedial face of the dorsal region of the cleithrum. The fibers insert on the dorsomedial faces of the principal rays distal to their bases, the more medial fibers serving the more ventral rays.

ADDUCTOR PROFUNDUS (Figure 83: ADD.P.).—The muscle passes from the posterior cleithrum and medial coracoid to insert on the ventromedial flanges of the bases of the principal fin rays.

ARRECTOR DORSALIS (Figure 83: ARR.D.).—The fibers originate from the medial cleithrum between the two adductor sections, and insert on the medial base of the vestigial fin ray.

CORACORADIALIS (Figure 83: COR.R).—The muscle originates largely from the fascia overlying the medial surface of the adductor profundus. It attaches to the medial process of the ventral radial.

PROTRACTOR PECTORALIS (Figure 80: P.P.).—The fibers fan out from their origin on the ventral tip of the pterotic and insert on the anterodorsal face of the cleithrum. The more anteromedial fibers spread out to cover the posteromedial wall of the branchial chamber.

LEVATOR PECTORALIS (Figure 80: TR.).—Origin is from the posteroventral tip of the pterotic, the muscle passing posteriorly to insert on the anterodorsal tip of the cleithrum.

MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE

ARRECTOR VENTRALIS PELVICUS? (Figure 84: A.V.P.).—The muscle originates in the ventral groove in the pelvis. Just before inserting, the fibers divide into left and right tendons. These continue posteriorly, dorsal to the first and second encasing scales to attach to the ventrolateral faces of the fin ray element.

ADDUCTOR SUPERFICIALIS PELVICUS? (Figure 84: A.S.P.).—This bilateral muscle originates in the dorsal groove of the pelvis. Posteriorly, the tendons pass through a tunnel in the dorsal lobe of the pelvis and insert on either side of the dorsal half of the fin ray element.

MUSCLES OF THE DORSAL FIN

INCLINATORES DORSALES (Figure 78: INC.).—There are no inclinators to the spiny dorsal fin. Each ray in the soft dorsal fin receives an inclinator, which inserts on the lateral base of the ray just above the insertion of the erector and depressor muscles. The fibers originate in the fascia overlying the epaxialis.

ERECTORES DORSALES (Figures 78, 80: EREC.).—The first erector is very powerful and passes from the dorsal faces of the frontal and supraoccipital to the anterolateral base of the first dorsal spine. The second erector arises from the posterior epiotic and, passing medial to the strut supporting the first spine, inserts on the lateral base of the second spine. There is no erector to the third spine. The erectors of the soft dorsal fin originate from the lateral faces of the posterior halves of the pterygiophores (just behind the lateral flanges) and the neural spines. The fibers reach the centra, and insert on the anterolateral bases of the fin rays.

DEPRESSORES DORSALES (Figures 78, 80: DEPR.).—The depressors of the first two spines arise from the epiotic. The first passes medial to the lateral strut of the pterygiophore before turning dorsally to insert on the posterolateral base of the spine, while the second muscle passes lateral to the strut to insert on the anterior face of the elongate, posteroventrally directed base of the second spine, ventral to its articulation with the lateral strut. The depressor of the third spine originates from the anteroventral face of the first pterygiophore of the soft dorsal fin. It passes anterodorsomedially, through a foramen in the pterygiophore, to insert on the base of the third spine. The depressors of the soft dorsal fin originate from the anterolateral faces of the pterygiophores and the neural spines, and insert on the posterolateral bases of the rays.

SUPRACARINALIS ANTERIOR (Figure 78: S.ANT.).—The muscle connects the posterodorsolateral face of the frontal to the anterolateral edge of the first basal pterygiophore of the spiny dorsal fin.

SUPRACARINALIS MEDIUS (Figure 80: S.MED.).—The muscle attaches to the posterolateral face of the second pterygiophore and fans out to insert broadly on the anterior face of the first pterygiophore of the soft dorsal fin.

SUPRACARINALIS POSTERIOR (Figure 85; s. POST.).—Fibers arise from the posterodorsolateral face of the last pterygiophore of the soft dorsal fin and the tip of the neural spine of the eighth caudal vertebra. The fibers attach to the tips of the ninth and tenth neural spines.

MUSCLES OF THE ANAL FIN

INCLINATORES ANALES (Figure 78: INC.).—Each fin ray possesses an inclinator arising from the fascia overlying the hypaxial body musculature and inserting on the lateral base of the ray. There is a large residual inclinator, which inserts on the base of the first anal pterygiophore. The inclinators decrease in size posteriorly.

ERECTORES ANALES.—Each fin ray has an erector muscle, which originates from the lateral faces of the pterygiophore and the haemal spines, and inserts on the anterolateral base of the ray.

DEPRESSORES ANALES.—The depressor muscles originate on the lateral faces of the pterygiophores and haemal spines, and insert on the posterolateral bases of each fin ray.

INFRACARINALIS ANTERIOR (Figures 78, 80: INF.A.).—The muscle is well developed. It arises from the posteroventral region of the cleithrum and inserts broadly over the lateral face of the pelvic bone. Posteriorly, it passes into a lateral tunnel in the bone, to whose walls fibers attach.

INFRACARINALIS MEDIUS (Figures 78, 80: INF.M.).—The fibers arise from the posterolateral face of the pelvic bone and pass posterodorsally to join with the fibers of the obliquus inferioris before acquiring attachment to the first anal pterygiophore. The muscle overlaps the posterior fibers of the infracarinalis anterior anterolaterally.

INFRACARINALIS POSTERIOR (Figure 85: INF.P.).—Fibers arise from the posteroventrolateral tip of the last anal pterygiophore and pass posteriorly, attaching to the tips of the haemal spines of the eighth and ninth vertebrae before ending on the midregion of the anterior face of the haemal spine of the tenth caudal vertebra.

MUSCLES OF THE CAUDAL FIN

INTERRADIALIS (Figure 85a: INT.).—The muscle consists of a number of bundles of fibers passing between the rays and meeting at the midlateral line. Fibers usually pass over two or three rays before reattaching.

HYPOCHORDAL LONGITUDINALIS (Figure 85a: H.L.).—Origin is from the lateral faces of hypural 2 and the urostyle, the fibers coursing posterodorsally to insert on the lateral bases of the fin rays D 2–4.

FLEXOR DORSALIS (Figure 85b: F.D.).—The muscle originates from the dorsolateral faces of the tenth caudal vertebral centrum and the urostyle. Fibers insert on the anterolateral bases of the rays D 1–6.

FLEXOR DORSALIS SUPERIOR (Figure 85: F.D.S.).—A well-developed muscle, originating from the dorsolateral faces of the neural spines and centra of the eighth and ninth caudal vertebrae, and inserting on the anterodorsolateral base of fin ray D 6.

FLEXOR VENTRALIS (Figure 85b: F.V.).—Origin is from the ventrolateral face of the hypural plate, the ural, and the penultimate centrum. The fibers insert on the anterolateral bases of rays V 1–6.

FLEXOR VENTRALIS INFERIOR (Figure 85: F.V.I.).—A well-developed muscle, arising from the ventrolateral faces of the haemal spines and vertebral centra of the eighth and ninth caudal vertebrae, with a few fibers from the tenth haemal spine. The muscle inserts on the anteroventrolateral base of ray V 6.

TRANSVERSUS CAUDALIS (Figure 85b: TR.C.).—Fibers originate from the dorsolateral face of the hypural plate beneath the urostyle and pass posteroventrally to insert on the anterodorsal base of ray V 1.

LATERAL BODY MUSCLES

EPAXIALIS (Figures 78, 85a: EPAX.).—Anteriorly the fibers arise from the supracleithrum, posttemporal, pterotic, epiotic, and exoccipital. The muscle is fairly uniform as it passes posteriorly, the myocommata becoming more horizontally oriented. The fibers grade into a fascia which inserts on the lateral bases of rays D 1–6.

OBLIQUUS SUPERIORIS (Figures 78, 85a: OBL.S.).—Anteriorly the fibers lie beneath the anteroventral downgrowth of the fibers of the epaxialis. The section does not reach the pectoral girdle anteriorly, and these fibers are also overlain by the anterodorsal region of the obliquus inferioris. They become exposed posteriorly, where they grade into a fascia with the obliquus inferioris to attach to the lateral bases of rays V 2–6. Dorsomedially, the fibers are attached to the centra of the vertebrae.

OBLIQUUS INFERIORIS (Figure 78: OBL.I.).—The anteroventral section of the muscle arises from the posterior face of the coracoid, the lateral fibers being continuous with the sternohyoideus. Most of the fibers from this region attach to the anteroventral face of the postcleithrum. Above the postcleithrum, the fibers arise from the fascia overlying the region of the epipleurals and course anteroventrally to attach to the posterodorsal face of the postcleithrum. The more posterior fibers become increasingly horizontal, and the section apparently fuses with the obliquus superioris to insert compoundly on rays V 2–6.

SPINALIS (Figure 80: SPIN.).—Fibers arise from the posterodorsal face of the epiotic and pass posteriorly to attach to the tips of the neural spines of the second and third abdominal vertebrae.

CUTANEOUS MUSCLES

TRANSVERSUS CUTANEOUS (Figure 78: TR.CUT.).—The fibers of this muscle arise from the fascia overlying the anteroventral portion of the obliquus inferioris and pass ventromedially to attach to the ventrolateral face of the pelvis. The posterodorsal fibers attach to the anteroventral tip of the postcleithrum. The section probably arose from the infracarinalis medius as postulated by Rosen (1913: 3), although he did not distinguish the infracarinalis medius from the obliquus inferioris.

Balistes vetula, the queen triggerfish or old wife, is a reef dwelling triggerfish found in the Atlantic Ocean. It is occasionally caught as a gamefish, and sometimes kept in very large marine aquaria.

Western Atlantic: Massachusetts, USA and northern Gulf of Mexico to southeastern Brazil