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Description

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A large newt. Vomerine tooth series symmetrical, slightly curved longitudinally, proximal ends drawn together, distal ends slightly curved to the outside. Body robust Wolterstorff index, forelimb/distance between limbs is 0.45-0.6), head wide; tail length approximately equal to or slightly less than body length with head. Skin rough, with large granules. Dorsal and lateral surfaces black or brownish-black with dark spots; numerous white points on body flanks. Throat black (sometimes yellowish) with white points. Belly yellow to orange with black, usually unfused spots. Male cloaca swollen and dark; tail with lateral longitudinal blue-white band. During the breeding season, the male has a deeply notched middorsal crest which extends from the level of eyes to the base of tail and unnotched crest on the tail. The female lacks these characters, and its cloaca is flattened and reddish; tail with longitudinal reddish or orange band from below.The species is the central member of Triturus cristatus superspecies, whose study is in progress. This species was featured as News of the Week on 17 August 2020:The pathogenic amphibian fungus known as Bsal (Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans) may be the most potent amphibian disease and poses extreme risk to natural populations, especially in salamanders. First detected in Fire Salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) in extreme southeastern Netherlands and adjacent Belgium and reported in 2013, it has spread to western Germany (with new reports from Bavaria), where it is having devastating effects. An entire issue of the journal Salamandra (2020, vol 56, issue 3, open access and available as PDF) is devoted to Bsal research centered in Germany. Salamander populations have essentially disappeared from the northern Eiffel region and are threatened in the southern Eiffel and Ruhr regions. Bsal has been present in Germany for at least 16 years and has been found in laboratory populations of the Common Frog, Rana temporaria, and field populations of the Great Crested Newt, Triturus cristatus. It is known to infect salamandrid species from southeast Asia, which appear to have been the source of the European outbreaks via pet trade importation. The goal in highlighting this important set of papers as stated by the editors "must go beyond documenting declines towards understanding spatio-temporal disease dynamics and the factors influencing the spread and impact of Bsal in different situations." In light of the seriousness of the Bsal threat in Germany, the authors' common goal is a national Bsal Action Plan, which would be of great importance for the international community of amphibian biologists and for the public (Written by David B. Wake).

Reference

Edgar P.W., Griffiths, R.A., and Foster, J.P. (2004). ''Evaluation of translocation as a tool for mitigating development threats to great crested newts in England.'' Biological Conservation, 122, 45-52.

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Distribution and Habitat

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The species inhabits Europe (except southern Europe) and the western part of West Siberia. The northern margin of the range extends from northern France, Great Britain, southern Scandinavia to the north of Russia (Karelia - Vologda Province - north of Kostroma Province - surroundings of Kirov City - Perm Province: Solikamsk Town, 58oN, 56o13'E). The southern margin runs from central France to southwestern Romania, then from central Moldavia through southern Ukraine south-eastwards then northwards into central European Russia and the southern Urals to the south of Kurgan Province in West Siberia. Then the margin turns north-westwards through Shadrinsk District of Kurgan Province (ca. 56o06'N, 63o35'E). The Great Crested Newt is distributed in the forest and forest steppe zones. Isolated populations live in "insular" forests within the European steppes. Triturus cristatus is a typical forest amphibian. It lives in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, their glades and edges, in bushlands, meadows, parks and gardens. In southern areas, populations of this newt live in insular forests and in the landscapes of dense vegetation of flooded valleys. Reproduction occurs in stagnant and, rarely, in semi-flowing waters such as ponds, flooded quarries, lakes, irrigation channels and ditches. Such water bodies may be large (several thousand square meters and several meters in depth) or small (5-10 m2 and about 0.5 m in depth). The use of small ponds appears to be more typical in the southern part of its range.
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors

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In southern regions, T. cristatus sometimes occurs in highly eutrophied water bodies. In northern regions, however, it is very sensitive to water quality. There it does not occur in eutrophic, shallow, overgrown ponds. In southern regions, the population density is higher than in northern regions and sometimes exceeds that of the Smooth Newt (Triturus vulgaris). The latter, however, is more tolerant to cold conditions as revealed from its geographic range, which extends more northwards and eastwards. Correspondingly, the abundance of the Great Crested Newt in northern areas is usually several times less than that of the sympatric Smooth Newt. At the north-western and eastern (Urals and Siberia) limits of its distribution, the Great Crested Newt is a rare or very rare species. Hibernation usually starts in October to November and finishes in February to May (depending on latitude and altitude), when the newts enter the breeding ponds. Adult newts stay in water a long time (sometimes several months) after reproduction. Courtship in this species, as in other members of Triturus cristatus superspecies, is somewhat different from that of the group of "small-bodied" newts (such as T. vulgaris, T. helveticus, etc.), and resembles that in T. vittatus. As in other species of Triturus, the female of the Great Crested Newt tucks each egg or a few eggs into a leaf during oviposition. Clutch consists of 70-600 (usually 150-200) eggs, which are deposited singly or in chains of 2-3 eggs. Embryogenesis takes 12-20 days. About half of the eggs fail to hatch due to inherent fault at their development. Just after hatching, the larvae live on the bottom, on aquatic plants, or other substrates. Afterwards, they switch to a mainly pelagic life after developing high fin folds, caudal filaments and long toes and fingers. These structures are reduced at metamorphosis and the larvae become benthic. The larval development is longer than many other newts, about 2.5-3 months or more. Metamorphosis occurs in late summer and autumn. Many larvae hibernate and complete their transformation in the next year. After the exhaustion of embryonic yolk, the larvae primarily eat microcrustaceans: Daphniidae, Chydoridae, Copepoda and small amounts of insects. Afterwards, they prey mainly on plankton as they take up a pelagic life. Large planktonic Daphnia are selected much more than small Diaptomidae. Selectivity toward small crawling invertebrates, e.g. Chydoridae, decreases correspondingly with ontogeny. Terrestrial adults primarily eat earthworms, slugs, insects and their larvae. During the aquatic phase, they consume Mollusca, particularly small Bivalvia, microcrustaceans and insects. Adult newts sometimes display cannibalism and often consume other amphibians, especially at larval and juvenile stages of development. Frequent consumption of vertebrate prey is typical for crested newts, the largest of the aquatic salamanders in Europe. It is even supposed that this predation may cause decline of breeding groups of the Smooth Newt (T. vulgaris) in Moldavia.
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors

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Triturus cristatus seems to be a declining species, like the majority of other European amphibians. Its decline, however, seems to be more pronounced. This may be related to its high requirements to water quality, especially at larval stages. Introduced fish pose another threat. They are more harmful for T. cristatus than other newt species because its larvae spend a great deal of time in the water column (instead of the bottom), where the frequency of encounters with fish is higher. Nevertheless, T. cristatus remains one of the most widespread amphibian species in Europe, forming many dense populations. Hence, it is not necessary to include it in the IUCN Red List. Rather, conservation at the level of particular countries and regions would be more suitable. Translocation of T. cristatus have been atempted. It is found that in situ translocation is more effective than ex situ translocation since these newt s become disorientated when moved outside of their home ranges and may attempt to return to their original pond.
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Relation to Humans

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The populations of T. cristatus are declining and becoming extinct under anthropogenic influences more rapidly than populations of other sympatric amphibians because of its sensitivity to water quality. Correspondingly, pollution of water, destruction and drainage of ponds, as well as introduction of fish seem to be the most harmful factors. Deforestation, urbanization, cleaning of ponds, collection for trade, etc., also play a negative role. T. cristatus are protected under European and UK legislation but it frequently cause conflict between development and conservation in England. About 27 percent of great crested newt terrestrial habitat and about half of ponds they inhabit was destroyed because of developments.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 28 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild, these animals may live up to 16 years. In captivity they have lived for 28 years (Smirina 1994).
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Biology

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Great crested newts feed on a range of aquatic invertebrates, but occasionally tackle large prey items such as adult smooth newts and large dragonflies (6). They are mainly active at night, spending the day at the bottom of ponds or hidden in vegetation (6). Males have an extravagant display used in courtship, it involves a male standing on his front legs in front of a female with an arched back while he waves his tail around. If the female is receptive the male transfers a spermatophore. Eggs are laid in February or March and are protected from predation by having the leaves of water plants folded over them. The appearance of vegetation showing a characteristic 'concertina' effect is a good indication of the presence of this species (6). Great crested newts leave the water in August and September; their behaviour during their period on land is poorly understood (6).
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Conservation

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The great crested newt is a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP). The species action plan aims to maintain and enhance current populations (2) with a target of the restoration of populations to at least 100 sites (8). A number of publications on this species have been produced; English Nature has published 'Great crested newt mitigation guidelines' targeted at developers and others involved in land-use changes, which could cause conflict with conservation of this species (9). Froglife has published 'The Great Crested Newt Conservation Handbook'.
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Description

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The great crested newt is Britain's largest and most threatened newt (5). The body is generally dark brown to black in colour with a warty appearance, which gives the species its other common name, the warty newt (6). The underside is bright orange with black markings that are unique to each individual. Females tend to be slightly longer than males, and in the breeding season the latter develop an obvious crest between the head and the tail, and a silver streak along the middle of the tail. The specific name cristatus derives from the Latin word meaning crested (7). Outside the breeding season, males and females are fairly similar in appearance, but females always have an orange line on the tail (6). Juveniles generally look like females but may have a yellow stripe along the back (6).
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Habitat

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This species inhabits a wide range of habitats, including farmland, woods, grasslands, dunes, quarries, industrial and 'brown-field' sites (2), within which it favours large ponds with abundant weeds and no fish (6). The habitat structure within the site such as hedgerows, varied topography and the availability of refuges in which the individuals can hide is very important and can determine whether the species can occupy a site or not (2). Occasionally they will use garden ponds (6) and commonly occur near natural springs (2). The condition of land between occupied sites is also an important factor, as many newt populations persist as metapopulations, a series of local populations between which individuals migrate (2). If there is little connectivity between patches of suitable habitat, migration will be unlikely (2).
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Range

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Widespread throughout northern and central Europe extending east to The Ural Mountains in Russia (6). The species has a wide distribution in Britain, but is absent from Cornwall, Devon, and parts of Wales and Scotland (6) and is generally uncommon (5). The population has undergone a very severe decline in the last 50 years (6).
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Status

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Classified on the IUCN Red List as Lower Risk, conservation dependent (LR/cd). Listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention (2), Annexes II and IV of the EC Habitats Directive (3), the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (2) and Schedule 2 of the Conservation Regulations 1994 (4).
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Threats

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The decline is due to a number of factors, including a large-scale loss of breeding ponds (8). Intensification of agriculture has resulted in many farm ponds becoming redundant, leading to neglect, and a decline in the suitability of the surrounding habitat. Many new ponds that would otherwise be suitable for this species are stocked with fish, which predate on both eggs and larvae (2). Ponds that survive in agricultural land often become polluted with pesticides and fertilisers (8).
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Northern crested newt

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The northern crested newt, great crested newt or warty newt (Triturus cristatus) is a newt species native to Great Britain, northern and central continental Europe and parts of Western Siberia. It is a large newt, with females growing up to 16 cm (6.3 in) long. Its back and sides are dark brown, while the belly is yellow to orange with dark blotches. Males develop a conspicuous jagged crest on their back and tail during the breeding season.

The northern crested newt spends most of the year on land, mainly in forested areas in lowlands. It moves to aquatic breeding sites, mainly larger fish-free ponds, in spring. Males court females with a ritualised display and deposit a spermatophore on the ground, which the female then picks up with her cloaca. After fertilisation, a female lays around 200 eggs, folding them into water plants. The larvae develop over two to four months before metamorphosing into terrestrial juveniles (efts). Both larvae and land-dwelling newts mainly feed on different invertebrates.

Several of the northern crested newt's former subspecies are now recognised as separate species in the genus Triturus. Its closest relative is the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus). It sometimes forms hybrids with some of its relatives, including the marbled newt (T. marmoratus). Although today the most widespread Triturus species, the northern crested newt was probably confined to small refugial areas in the Carpathians during the Last Glacial Maximum.

While the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as Least Concern species, populations of the northern crested newt have been declining. The main threat is habitat destruction, for example, through urban sprawl. The species is listed as a European Protected Species.

Taxonomy

The northern crested newt was described as Triton cristatus by Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in 1768.[2] As Linnaeus had already used the name Triton for a genus of sea snails ten years before,[3] Constantine Samuel Rafinesque introduced the new genus name Triturus in 1815, with T. cristatus as type species.[4]

Over 40 scientific names introduced over time are now considered as synonyms, including Lacertus aquatilis, a nomen oblitum published four years before Laurenti's species name.[2] Hybrids resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus) female were mistakenly described as distinct species Triton blasii, and the reverse hybrids as Triton trouessarti.[2][5]

T. cristatus was long considered as a single species, the "crested newt", with several subspecies. Substantial genetic differences between these subspecies were, however, noted and eventually led to their recognition as full species, often collectively referred to as "T. cristatus species complex". There are now seven accepted species of crested newts, of which the northern crested newt is the most widespread.[6]

Description

side view of a black newt
Side view of a female
Underside of a crested newt from head to lower belly, showing large black blotches on yellow background
The belly is yellow to orange with black, well-defined blotches.

The northern crested newt is a relatively large newt species. Males usually reach 13.5 cm (5.3 in) total length, while females grow up to 16 cm (6.3 in). Rare individuals of 20 cm (7.9 in) have been recorded. Other crested newt species are more stockily built; only the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus) is more slender.[7]: 342 [8]: 12–15  Body shape is correlated with skeletal build: The northern crested newt has 15 rib-bearing vertebrae, only the Danube crested newt has more (16–17), while the other, more stocky Triturus species have 14 or less.[9]

The newts have rough skin, and are dark brown on the back and sides, with black spots and heavy white stippling on the flanks. The female has a yellow line running along the lower tail edge. The throat is mixed yellow–black with fine white stippling, the belly yellow to orange with dark, irregular blotches.[7]: 342 

During the aquatic breeding season, males develop crest up to 1.5 cm (0.59 in) high, which runs along the back and tail but is interrupted at the tail base. It is heavily indented on the back but smoother on the tail. Also during breeding season, the male's cloaca swells and it has a blue–white flash running along the sides of the tail. Females do not develop a crest.[7]: 342 [8]: 12–15 

Range

The northern crested newt is the most widespread and northerly crested newt species. The northern edge of its range runs from Great Britain through southern Fennoscandia to the Republic of Karelia in Russia; the southern margin runs through central France, southwest Romania, Moldavia and Ukraine, heading from there into central Russia and through the Ural Mountains. The eastern extent of the great crested newt's range reaches into Western Siberia, running from the Perm Krai to the Kurgan Oblast.[10]

In western France, the species co-occurs and sometimes hybridises (see section Evolution below) with the marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus).[5] In southeast Europe, its range borders that of the Italian crested newt (T. carnifex), the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus), the Macedonian crested newt (T. macedonicus) and the Balkan crested newt (T. ivanbureschi).[11]

Habitat

A large pond with abundant vegetation and trees surrounding it
Large ponds with abundant vegetation are the preferred breeding habitats.
Great crested newts and their conservation in Wales, video by Natural Resources Wales

Outside of the breeding season, northern crested newts are mainly forest-dwellers. They prefer deciduous woodlands or groves, but conifer woods are also accepted, especially in the far northern and southern ranges. In the absence of forests, other cover-rich habitats, as for example hedgerows, scrub, swampy meadows, or quarries, can be inhabited.[8]: 47–48,76 [12][10]

Preferred aquatic breeding sites are stagnant, mid- to large-sized, unshaded water bodies with abundant underwater vegetation but without fish (which prey on larvae). Typical examples are larger ponds, which need not be of natural origin; indeed, most ponds inhabited in the United Kingdom are human-made.[8]: 48  Examples of other suitable secondary habitats are ditches, channels, gravel pit lakes, or garden ponds. Other newts that can sometimes be found in the same breeding sites are the smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), the palmate newt (L. helveticus), the Carpathian newt (L. montadoni), the alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris) and the marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus).[8]: 44–48 [12]

The northern crested newt is generally a lowland species but has been found up to 1,750 m (5,740 ft) in the Alps.[7]: 343 [1]

Population structure, speciation, and phylogeny

Hybridization

In certain areas of France, the northern crested newt and the marbled newt overlap, and hybrids are present. As the northern crested newt's population grows, and marbled newt population struggles, these hybrids have been shown to possess good qualities of both. They have more fecundity than the two newts however have a hard time keeping their eggs alive.[13]

Life cycle and behaviour

Like other newts, T. cristatus develops in the water as a larva and returns to the water each year for breeding. Adults spend around seven months of the year on land. After larval development in the first year, juveniles pass another year or two before reaching maturity; in the north and at higher elevations, this can take longer. The larval and juvenile stages are the riskiest for the newts, while survival is higher in adults. Once the risky stages passed, adult newts usually have a lifespan of seven to nine years, although individuals have reached 17 years in the wild.[8]: 98–99 

Adult newts begin moving to their breeding sites in spring when temperatures stay above 4–5 °C (39–41 °F), usually in March.[8]: 44  In the aquatic phase, crested newts are mostly nocturnal and, compared to smaller newt species, usually prefer the deeper parts of a water body, where they hide under vegetation. As with other newts, they have to occasionally move to the surface to breathe air. The aquatic phase serves not only for reproduction, but also offers more abundant prey, and immature crested newts frequently return to the water in spring even if they do not breed.[8]: 52–58 

During the terrestrial phase, the newts use hiding places such as logs, bark, planks, stone walls, or small mammal burrows; several individuals may occupy such refuges at the same time. Since the newts generally stay very close to their aquatic breeding sites, the quality of the surrounding terrestrial habitat largely determines whether an otherwise suitable water body will be colonised.[8]: 47–48,76 [12][14] Great crested newts may also climb vegetation during their terrestrial phase, although the exact function of this behaviour is not known at present.[15]

The juvenile efts often disperse to new breeding sites, while the adults in general move back to the same breeding sites each year. The newts do not migrate very far: they may cover around 100 metres (110 yd) in one night and rarely disperse much farther than one kilometre (0.62 mi). Over most of their range, they hibernate in winter, using mainly subterranean hiding places, where many individuals will often congregate.[8]: 73–78 [12]

Diet and predators

Northern crested newts feed mainly on invertebrates. During the land phase, prey include earthworms and other annelids, different insects, woodlice, and snails and slugs. During the breeding season, they prey on various aquatic invertebrates (such as molluscs, microcrustaceans, and insects), and also tadpoles of other amphibians such as the common frog or common toad, and smaller newts.[8]: 58–59 [16] Larvae, depending on their size, eat small invertebrates and tadpoles, and also smaller larvae of their own species.[12]

The larvae are themselves eaten by various animals such as carnivorous invertebrates and water birds, and are especially vulnerable to predatory fish.[12] Adults generally avoid predators through their hidden lifestyle but are sometimes eaten by herons and other birds, snakes such as the grass snake, and mammals such as shrews, badgers and hedgehogs.[8]: 78  They secrete the poison tetrodotoxin from their skin, albeit much less than for example the North American Pacific newts (Taricha).[17] The bright yellow or orange underside of crested newts is a warning coloration which can be presented in case of perceived danger. In such a posture, the newts typically roll up and secrete a milky substance.[8]: 79 

Courtship and reproduction

Northern crested newt courtship in a pond, with male showing "lean-in" and tail-flapping behaviour

Northern crested newts, like their relatives in the genus Triturus, perform a complex courtship display, where the male attracts a female through specific body movements and waves pheromones to her. The males are territorial and use small patches of clear ground as leks, or courtship arenas. When successful, they guide the female over a spermatophore they deposit on the ground, which she then takes up with her cloaca.[8]: 80–89 

The eggs are fertilised internally, and the female deposits them individually, usually folding them into leaves of aquatic plants. A female takes around five minutes for the deposition of one egg. They usually lay around 200 eggs per season. Embryos are usually light-coloured, 1.8–2 mm in diameter with a 6 mm jelly capsule, which distinguishes them from eggs of other co-existing newt species that are smaller and darker-coloured. A genetic particularity shared with other Triturus species causes 50% of the embryos to die.[8]: 61–62 [18]

Larvae hatch after two to five weeks, depending on temperature. As in all salamanders and newts, forelimbs develop first, followed later by the back legs. Unlike smaller newts, crested newt larvae are mostly nektonic, swimming freely in the water column. Just before the transition to land, the larvae resorb their external gills; they can at this stage reach a size of 7 centimetres (2.8 in). Metamorphosis into terrestrial efts takes place two to four months after hatching, again depending on temperature. Survival of larvae from hatching to metamorphosis has been estimated at a mean of roughly 4%. In unfavourable conditions, larvae may delay their development and overwinter in water, although this seems to be less common than in the small-bodied newts.[8]: 64–71 

Development in the northern crested newt
A transparent egg with a white embryo on the leaf of an aquatic plant
Embryo in jelly capsule
A newt larva with gills and forelimbs, but no hindlimbs developed
Young larva
A dark-coloured larva with all limbs developed but gills still apparent
Larva shortly before metamorphosis
A small, black newt without gills or crest on mosstaxobox
Terrestrial juvenile
Triturus species fold their eggs in leaves of aquatic plants. The larvae first develop fore- and later hindlimbs and can grow up to 7 cm. After metamorphosis, juveniles are around 3–5 cm long. In total, larval development takes between two and four months.

Evolution

Position of the northern crested newt (T. cristatus) in the phylogenetic tree of the genus Triturus[9]

The northern crested newt sometimes hybridises with other crested newt species where their ranges meet, but overall, the different species are reproductively isolated.[11] In a case study in the Netherlands, genes of the introduced Italian crested newt (T. carnifex) were found to introgress into the gene pool of the native northern crested newt.[19] The closest relative of the northern crested newt, according to molecular phylogenetic analyses, is the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus).[9][20]

In western France, the northern crested newt's range overlaps with that of the marbled newt (T. marmoratus), but the two species in general prefer different habitats.[21][22] When they do occur in the same breeding ponds, they can form hybrids, which have intermediate characteristics. Hybrids resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt female are much rarer due to increased mortality of the larvae and consist only of males. In the reverse cross, males have lower survival rates than females. Overall, viability is reduced in these hybrids and they rarely backcross with their parent species. Hybrids made up 3–7% of the adult populations in different studies.[5]

Little genetic variation was found over most of the species' range, except in the Carpathians. This suggests that the Carpathians was a refugium during the Last Glacial Maximum. The northern crested newt then expanded its range north-, east- and westwards when the climate rewarmed.[23][24][25]

Threats and conservation

Low plastic fence around an area of recently upturned soil.
Drift fence for the capture and relocation of northern crested newts from a development site in the UK

The northern crested newt is listed as species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, but populations are declining.[1] It is rare in some parts of its range and listed in several national red lists.[12]

The major reason for decline is habitat destruction through urban and agricultural development, affecting the aquatic breeding sites as well as the land habitats. Their limited dispersal makes the newts especially vulnerable to fragmentation, i.e. the loss of connections for exchange between suitable habitats.[12] Other threats include the introduction of fish and crayfish into breeding ponds,[12] collection for the pet trade in its eastern range,[12] warmer and wetter winters due to global warming,[8]: 110  genetic pollution through hybridisation with other, introduced crested newt species,[19] the use of road salt,[26] and potentially the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans.[27]

The northern crested newt is listed in Berne Convention Appendix II as "strictly protected".[28] It is also included in Annex II (species requiring designation of special areas of conservation) and IV (species in need of strict protection) of the EU habitats and species directive, as a European Protected Species.[29] As required by these frameworks, its capture, disturbance, killing or trade, as well as the destruction of its habitats, are prohibited in most European countries.[28][29] The EU habitats directive is also the basis for the Natura 2000 protected areas, several of which have been designated specifically to protect the northern crested newt.[12]

Preservation of natural water bodies, reduction of fertiliser and pesticide use, control or eradication of introduced predatory fish, and the connection of habitats through sufficiently wide corridors of uncultivated land are seen as effective conservation actions. A network of aquatic habitats in proximity is important to sustain populations, and the creation of new breeding ponds is in general very effective as they are rapidly colonised when other habitats are nearby. In some cases, entire populations have been moved when threatened by development projects, but such translocations need to be carefully planned to be successful.[8]: 118–133 [12]

Strict protection of the northern crested newt in the United Kingdom has created conflicts with local development projects, but the species is also seen as a flagship species, whose conservation also benefits a range of other amphibians.[12] Government agencies have issued specific guidelines for the mitigation of development impacts.[30]

References

  1. ^ a b c Arntzen, J.W.; Kuzmin, S.; Jehle, R.; Beebee, T; Tarkhnishvili, D.; et al. (2009). "Triturus cristatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T22212A9365894. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009.RLTS.T22212A9365894.en.
  2. ^ a b c d Frost, D.R. (2020). "Triturus cristatus (Laurenti, 1768). Amphibian Species of the World 6.0, an Online Reference". New York: American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2020-05-03.
  3. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae: Salvius. p. 658.
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Northern crested newt: Brief Summary

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The northern crested newt, great crested newt or warty newt (Triturus cristatus) is a newt species native to Great Britain, northern and central continental Europe and parts of Western Siberia. It is a large newt, with females growing up to 16 cm (6.3 in) long. Its back and sides are dark brown, while the belly is yellow to orange with dark blotches. Males develop a conspicuous jagged crest on their back and tail during the breeding season.

The northern crested newt spends most of the year on land, mainly in forested areas in lowlands. It moves to aquatic breeding sites, mainly larger fish-free ponds, in spring. Males court females with a ritualised display and deposit a spermatophore on the ground, which the female then picks up with her cloaca. After fertilisation, a female lays around 200 eggs, folding them into water plants. The larvae develop over two to four months before metamorphosing into terrestrial juveniles (efts). Both larvae and land-dwelling newts mainly feed on different invertebrates.

Several of the northern crested newt's former subspecies are now recognised as separate species in the genus Triturus. Its closest relative is the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus). It sometimes forms hybrids with some of its relatives, including the marbled newt (T. marmoratus). Although today the most widespread Triturus species, the northern crested newt was probably confined to small refugial areas in the Carpathians during the Last Glacial Maximum.

While the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as Least Concern species, populations of the northern crested newt have been declining. The main threat is habitat destruction, for example, through urban sprawl. The species is listed as a European Protected Species.

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