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European Beech

Fagus sylvatica L.

Biology

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Beech trees begin to produce leaves in March or April, and flower in April or May (5). The oil-rich nuts are produced in September and October, and were once used to feed livestock; pigs and cattle were released into beech woodlands to allow them to feed on the 'mast' (4). Nuts are also eaten by chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs), wood pigeons (Columba palumbus) and other birds (6). The leaves take quite some time to rot fully, and beech woods are carpeted with a deep layer of leaf litter, which prevents other plants from becoming established. Beech woods are consequently somewhat devoid of woodland flowers and other understory plants (3). There is very little folklore or local custom associated with the beech. It is chiefly admired as a landscape tree for its grace and elegance, and has been used for firewood, as a fuel for ironworks and the glass industry, and by the eighteenth century it began to be used for timber (4). Many beeches were pollarded, which produced thin poles of wood out of the reach of browsers such as deer (6).
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Conservation

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As this species is common and widespread, conservation action is not necessary.
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Description

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The beech is a magnificent large tree with a broad crown, and very smooth greyish bark. There are typically many branches, which may arch downwards. The dark green leaves are oval to elliptical in shape, terminating in a point; they have wavy edges, which are fringed with hairs in young leaves. The male flowers occur in drooping clusters; in contrast, female flowers occur in pairs on short stalks (2). The nuts (known as 'mast') also occur in pairs, in a spiny husk consisting of four lobes (3).
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Habitat

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This species is found in a wide range of soil types and habitats, but prefers chalky soils and limestone (5). It avoids low-lying areas, where the soil may become water-logged (6).
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Range

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Although often said to have been introduced to Britain by the Romans, the discovery of beech pollen dating from 6000 BC in Hampshire proves that this tree is indeed a native; it was present in Britain when the country became an island after the Ice Age. It spread naturally northwards to a line drawn between the Wash and the Bristol Channel, and was planted further north (4). This tree is known throughout much of Europe. (7).
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Status

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Widespread and very common (2).
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Threats

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This tree is not threatened.
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Associations

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Plant / associate
Abdera quadrifasciata is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Ampedus cinnabarinus feeds within wood of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Ampedus quercicola feeds within wood of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Anisoxya fuscula is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Anoplodera sexguttata feeds within dead wood of Fagus sylvatica
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / pathogen
Armillaria mellea s.l. infects and damages Fagus sylvatica

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Auricularia auricula-judae is saprobic on wood of Fagus sylvatica
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / open feeder
caterpillar of Biston betularia grazes on live leaf of Fagus sylvatica
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus calopus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus ferrugineus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus immutatus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus luridiformis is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus pruinatus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus satanas is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus subtomentosus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / parasite
live root of Cephalanthera rubra parasitises live root of Fagus sylvatica
Other: major host/prey

Plant / associate
Cerylon fagi is associated with under bark of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Cerylon ferrugineum is associated with under bark of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Cerylon histeroides is associated with under bark of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Chalciporus piperatus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Cicones variegatus is associated with under bark of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / gall
larva of Contarinia fagi causes gall of bud (terminal, vegetative) of Fagus sylvatica
Other: sole host/prey

Plant / associate
Corticeus unicolor is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius arquatus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / internal feeder
caterpillar of Cossus cossus feeds within live trunk of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mobile cased feeder
larva of Cryptocephalus coryli grazes in mobile case on fallen leaf of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: captive: in captivity, culture, or experimentally induced

Plant / resting place / on
adult of Cryptocephalus pusillus may be found on Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: season: 5-10

Foodplant / saprobe
loosely aggregated, covered then piercing by an irregular fissure, irregularly plurilocular stroma of Fusicoccum coelomyceous anamorph of Cryptodiaporthe galericulata is saprobic on branch of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: season: 3-7

Foodplant / saprobe
bracket of Daedalea quercina is saprobic on hard, barely decayed wood of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / roller
larva of Deporaus betulae rolls leaf of Fagus sylvatica
Other: minor host/prey

Plant / associate
Diplocoelus fagi is associated with under bark of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Dorcus parallelipipedus feeds within dead or rotten wood of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / saprobe
resupinate fruitbody of Eichleriella deglubens is saprobic on fallen branch of Fagus sylvatica
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza
fruitbody of Elaphomyces aculeatus is mycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza
fruitbody of Elaphomyces anthracinus is mycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza
fruitbody of Elaphomyces granulatus is mycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza
fruitbody of Elaphomyces leucosporus is mycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza
fruitbody of Elaphomyces muricatus is mycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Elater ferrugineus feeds within wood of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / gall
Eriophyes nervisequus causes gall of leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / gall
Eriophyes nervisequus var maculifer causes gall of leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / gall
Eriophyes stenaspis causes gall of leaf margin of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Ernoporus fagi feeds within cambium of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / parasite
Erysiphe alphitoides parasitises Fagus sylvatica
Other: minor host/prey

Plant / associate
Eucnemis capucina is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / open feeder
caterpillar of Euproctis similis grazes on live leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, slightly raised, convex, obtuse, bursting the periderm and surrounded by it, plurilocular, 1-2mm diam. stroma of Fusicoccum coelomycetous anamorph of Fusicoccum macrosporum is saprobic on dying branch of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: season: 5

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Gyroporus cyanescens is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / gall
larva of Hartigiola annulipes causes gall of leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / pathogen
fruitbody of Heterobasidion annosum infects and damages live root of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Hylis olexai is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / feeds on
Hylocoetus dermestoides feeds on Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Laemophloeus monilis is associated with under bark of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / parasite
fruitbody of Laetiporus sulphureus parasitises trunk of old tree of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: season: early summer to autumn
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Limoniscus violaceus feeds within wood of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Megapenthes lugens feeds within wood of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Melandrya barbata is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Melandrya caraboides is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Melasis buprestoides is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Microrhagus pygmaeus is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / gall
larva of Mikiola fagi causes gall of leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / gall
Monochetus sulcatus causes gall of leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Mycetochara humeralis is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / pathogen
Tubercularia anamorph of Nectria cinnabarina infects and damages branch of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / open feeder
solitary larva of Nematus fagi grazes on leaf (edge) of Fagus sylvatica
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / gall
larva of Oligotrophus fagineus causes gall of leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / gall
larva of Phegobia tornatella causes gall of leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / gall
larva of Phegomyia fagicola causes gall of leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / saprobe
stalked, clustered basidiocarp of Phleogena faginea is saprobic on dead, standing trunk of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: season: 10-2
Other: major host/prey

Plant / associate
Phloiotrya vaudoueri is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / saprobe
hypophyllous Phyllactinia guttata is saprobic on dead leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / false gall
hypophyllous Phyllaphis fagi causes swelling of curled leaf of Fagus sylvatica
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / pathogen
Phytophthora cambivora infects and damages live, cankered trunk of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / pathogen
Phytophthora cinnamomi infects and damages necrotic collar of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / pathogen
Phytophthora kernoviae infects and damages live, cankered trunk of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / false gall
mycelium of Phytophthora ramorum causes swelling of bleeding, cankered trunk of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Piptocephalis pseudocephala is associated with leaf of litter of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / parasite
fruitbody of Piptoporus quercinus parasitises white-rotted Fagus sylvatica
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Platypus cylindrus feeds within wood of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Porphyrellus porphyrosporus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Prionus coriarius feeds within moribund root of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Prionychus melanarius is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Procraerus tibialis feeds within wood of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Psathyrella narcotica is saprobic on decayed mast of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
larva of Pyrochroa serraticornis is associated with under bark of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / saprobe
rather large, depreesed, covered pycnidium of Rhabdospora coelomycetous anamorph of Rhabdospora princeps is saprobic on dead stick of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / miner
larva of Rhynchaenus fagi mines leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / feeds on
Rhyncolus gracilis feeds on Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula faustiana is ectomycorrhizal with root of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza
fruitbody of Sarcosphaera coronaria is mycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Fungus / feeder
Sciurus carolinensis feeds on fruit of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / feeds on
Sciurus vulgaris feeds on fruit of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Scolytus intricatus feeds within cambium of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Sinodendron cylindricum feeds within dead or rotten wood of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Stictoleptura scutellata feeds within dead trunk of Fagus sylvatica
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Strobilomyces strobilaceus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Taphrorychus bicolor feeds within cambium of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Thymalus limbatus is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
Tillus elongatus is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Trachodes hispidus feeds within old twig of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / epiphyte
colony of Trentepohlia abietina grows on bark of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
imago of Tropideres sepicola is associated with dead branch of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tylopilus felleus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Fagus sylvatica

Plant / associate
hypogeous (shallow) fruitbody of Wakefieldia macrospora is associated with Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyleborus dispar feeds within live cambium of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyleborus dryographus feeds within cambium of Fagus sylvatica
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyleborus saxeseni feeds within cambium of Fagus sylvatica
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyloterus domesticus feeds within cambium of Fagus sylvatica

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyloterus signatus feeds within cambium of Fagus sylvatica

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Fagus sylvatica

provided by wikipedia EN

Fagus sylvatica, the European beech or common beech is a deciduous tree belonging to the beech family Fagaceae.

Description

Copper beech in autumn
Shoot with nut cupules

Fagus sylvatica is a large tree, capable of reaching heights of up to 50 metres (160 feet) tall[3] and 3 m (10 ft) trunk diameter, though more typically 25–35 m (82–115 ft) tall and up to 1.5 m (5 ft) trunk diameter. A 10-year-old sapling will stand about 4 m (13 ft) tall. It has a typical lifespan of 150–200 years, though sometimes up to 300 years. In cultivated forest stands trees are normally harvested at 80–120 years of age.[4] 30 years are needed to attain full maturity (as compared to 40 for American beech). Like most trees, its form depends on the location: in forest areas, F. sylvatica grows to over 30 m (100 ft), with branches being high up on the trunk. In open locations, it will become much shorter (typically 15–24 m or 50–80 ft) and more massive.

The leaves are alternate, simple, and entire or with a slightly crenate margin, 5–10 centimetres (2–4 inches) long and 3–7 cm broad, with 6–7 veins on each side of the leaf (as opposed to 7–10 veins in F. orientalis). When crenate, there is one point at each vein tip, never any points between the veins. The buds are long and slender, 15–30 millimetres (581+18 in) long and 2–3 mm (33218 in) thick, but thicker (to 4–5 mm) where the buds include flower buds.

The leaves of beech are often not abscissed (dropped) in the autumn and instead remain on the tree until the spring. This process is called marcescence. This particularly occurs when trees are saplings or when plants are clipped as a hedge (making beech hedges attractive screens, even in winter), but it also often continues to occur on the lower branches when the tree is mature.

Small quantities of seeds may be produced around 10 years of age, but not a heavy crop until the tree is at least 30 years old. F. sylvatica male flowers are borne in the small catkins which are a hallmark of the Fagales order (beeches, chestnuts, oaks, walnuts, hickories, birches, and hornbeams). The female flowers produce beechnuts, small triangular nuts 15–20 mm (5834 in) long and 7–10 mm (1438 in) wide at the base; there are two nuts in each cupule, maturing in the autumn 5–6 months after pollination. Flower and seed production is particularly abundant in years following a hot, sunny and dry summer, though rarely for two years in a row.

Distribution and habitat

Fagus sylvatica pliocenicaMuseum of Toulouse

The natural range extends from southern Sweden to northern Sicily,[5] west to France, southern England, northern Portugal, central Spain, and east to northwest Turkey, where it intergrades with the oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), which replaces it further east. In the Balkans, it shows some hybridisation with oriental beech; these hybrid trees are named Fagus × taurica Popl. [Fagus moesiaca (Domin, Maly) Czecz.]. In the southern part of its range around the Mediterranean, it grows only in mountain forests, at 600–1,800 m (1,969–5,906 ft) altitude.

Although often regarded as native in southern England, recent evidence suggests that F. sylvatica did not arrive in England until about 4000 BC, or 2,000 years subsequent to the English Channel forming following the ice ages; it could have been an early introduction by Stone Age humans, who used the nuts for food.[6] The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods.[7] Localised pollen records have been recorded in the North of England from the Iron Age by Sir Harry Godwin. Changing climatic conditions may put beech populations in southern England under increased stress and while it may not be possible to maintain the current levels of beech in some sites it is thought that conditions for beech in north-west England will remain favourable or even improve. It is often planted in Britain. Similarly, the nature of Norwegian beech populations is subject to debate. If native, they would represent the northern range of the species. However, molecular genetic analyses support the hypothesis that these populations represent intentional introduction from Denmark before and during the Viking Age.[8] However, the beech in Vestfold and at Seim north of Bergen in Norway is now spreading naturally and regarded as native.[9]

Though not demanding of its soil type, the European beech has several significant requirements: a humid atmosphere (precipitation well distributed throughout the year and frequent fogs) and well-drained soil (being intolerant of excessive stagnant water). It prefers moderately fertile ground, calcified or lightly acidic, therefore it is found more often on the side of a hill than at the bottom of clayey basin. It tolerates rigorous winter cold, but is sensitive to spring frost. In Norway's oceanic climate planted trees grow well north to Bodø, and produce seedlings and can spread naturally in Trondheim.[10] In Sweden, beech trees do not grow as far north as in Norway.[11]

A beech forest is very dark and few species of plant are able to survive there, where the sun barely reaches the ground. Young beeches prefer some shade and may grow poorly in full sunlight. In a clear-cut forest a European beech will germinate and then die of excessive dryness. Under oaks with sparse leaf cover it will quickly surpass them in height and, due to the beech's dense foliage, the oaks will die from lack of sunlight.

Ecology

The root system is shallow, even superficial, with large roots spreading out in all directions. European beech forms ectomycorrhizas with a range of fungi including many Russula species, as well as Laccaria amethystina,[12] and with the species Ramaria flavosaponaria.[13] Tomentella Pat. species and Cenococcum geophilum have been found in Danish and Spanish beech forests. These fungi are important in enhancing uptake of water and nutrients from the soil.[12]

In the woodlands of southern Britain, beech is dominant over oak and elm south of a line from about north Suffolk across to Cardigan. Oak are the dominant forest trees north of this line. One of the most beautiful European beech forests called Sonian Forest (Forêt de Soignes/Zoniënwoud) is found in the southeast of Brussels, Belgium. Beech is a dominant tree species in France and constitutes about 10% of French forests. The largest virgin forests made of beech trees are Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh (8,800 hectares or 22,000 acres) in Ukraine[14] and Izvoarele Nerei (5,012 ha or 12,380 acres in one forest body) in Semenic-Cheile Carașului National Park, Romania. These habitats are the home of Europe's largest predators, (the brown bear, the grey wolf and the lynx).[15][16][17] Many trees are older than 350 years in Izvoarele Nerei[18] and even 500 years in Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh.[14]

Spring leaf budding by the European beech is triggered by a combination of day length and temperature. Bud break each year is from the middle of April to the beginning of May, often with remarkable precision (within a few days). It is more precise in the north of its range than the south, and at 600 m (2,000 ft) than at sea level.[19]

The European beech invests significantly in summer and autumn for the following spring. Conditions in summer, particularly good rainfall, determine the number of leaves included in the buds. In autumn, the tree builds the reserves that will sustain it into spring. Given good conditions, a bud can produce a shoot with ten or more leaves. The terminal bud emits a hormonal substance in the spring that halts the development of additional buds. This tendency, though very strong at the beginning of their existence, becomes weaker in older trees.

It is only after the budding that root growth of the year begins. The first roots to appear are very thin (with a diameter of less than 0.5 mm). Later, after a wave of above ground growth, thicker roots grow in a steady fashion.

Detail of the tarcrust's structure

Pathogens

Biscogniauxia nummularia (beech tarcrust) is an ascomycete primary pathogen of beech trees, causing strip-canker and wood rot. It can be found at all times of year and is not edible.[20]

Cultivation

A look down a steep gorge with European beech leading down to the ocean at Møns Klint, Denmark

European beech is a very popular ornamental tree in parks and large gardens in temperate regions of the world. In North America, they are preferred for this purpose over the native F. grandifolia, which despite its tolerance of warmer climates, is slower growing, taking an average of 10 years longer to attain maturity. The town of Brookline, Massachusetts has one of the largest, if not the largest, grove of European beech trees in the United States. The 2.5-acre (1 ha) public park, called 'The Longwood Mall', was planted sometime before 1850 qualifying it as the oldest stand of European beeches in the United States.[21]

It is frequently kept clipped to make attractive hedges.

Since the early 19th century there have been numerous cultivars of European beech made by horticultural selection, often repeatedly; they include:

  • copper beech or purple beech (Fagus sylvatica purpurea)[22] – a mutation of the European beech which was first noted in 1690 in the "Possenwald" forest near the town of Sondershausen in Thuringia, Germany. It is assumed that about 99% of all copper beeches in the world are descendants of this copper beech. Its leaves are purple, in many selections turning deep spinach green by mid-summer. In the United States Charles Sprague Sargent noted the earliest appearance in a nurseryman's catalogue in 1820, but in 1859 "the finest copper beech in America... more than fifty feet high" was noted in the grounds of Thomas Ash, Esq., Throggs Neck, New York;[23] it must have been more than forty years old at the time.
  • fern-leaf beech (Fagus sylvatica Heterophylla Group) – leaves deeply serrated to thread-like
  • dwarf beech (Fagus sylvatica Tortuosa Group) – distinctive twisted trunk and branches
  • weeping beech (Fagus sylvatica Pendula Group) – branches pendulous
  • Dawyck beech (Fagus sylvatica 'Dawyck') – fastigiate (columnar) growth – occurs in green, gold and purple forms; named after Dawyck Botanic Garden in the Scottish Borders
  • golden beech (Fagus sylvatica 'Zlatia') – leaves golden in spring

Cultivars

The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-[24]

  • F. sylvatica[25]
  • 'Dawyck'[26]
  • 'Dawyck Gold'[27]
  • 'Dawyck Purple'[28]
  • 'Pendula' (weeping beech)[29]
  • 'Riversii'[30]
  • F. sylvatica var. heterophylla 'Aspleniifolia'[31]

Uses

The nuts are eaten by humans and animals.[32] Slightly toxic to humans if eaten in large quantities due to the tannins and alkaloids they contain, the nuts were nonetheless pressed to obtain an oil in 19th-century England that was used for cooking and in lamps. They were also ground to make flour, which could be eaten after the tannins were leached out by soaking.[33][34][35]

Primary Product AM 01, a smoke flavouring, is produced from Fagus sylvatica L.[36]

Timber

The wood of the European beech is used in the manufacture of numerous objects and implements. Its fine and short grain makes it an easy wood to work with, easy to soak, dye, varnish and glue. Steaming makes the wood even easier to machine. It has an excellent finish and is resistant to compression and splitting and it is stiff when flexed. Milling is sometimes difficult due to cracking. The density of the wood is 720 kilograms (1,590 pounds) per cubic meter.[37] It is particularly well suited for minor carpentry, particularly furniture. From chairs to parquetry (flooring) and staircases, the European beech can do almost anything other than heavy structural support, so long as it is not left outdoors. Its hardness make it ideal for making wooden mallets and workbench tops. The wood rots easily if it is not protected by a tar based on a distillate of its own bark (as used in railway sleepers).[38][39] It is better for paper pulp than many other broadleaved trees though is only sometimes used for this, the high cellulose content can also be spun into modal, which is used as a textile akin to cotton. The code for its use in Europe is fasy (from FAgus SYlvatica). Common beech is also considered one of the best firewoods for fireplaces.[40]

Gallery

References

  1. ^ Barstow, M. & Beech, E. 2018. Fagus sylvatica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T62004722A62004725. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T62004722A62004725.en. Downloaded on 13 April 2021.
  2. ^ "Fagus sylvatica L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
  3. ^ "Tall Trees". Bomeninfo.nl.
  4. ^ Wühlisch, G. (2008). "European beech – Fagus sylvatica" (PDF). EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for Genetic Conservation and Use. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2016-10-20.
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Fagus sylvatica: Brief Summary

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Fagus sylvatica, the European beech or common beech is a deciduous tree belonging to the beech family Fagaceae.

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