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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 36 years (captivity) Observations: One wild born male was living at the Duke University Primate Center at about 36 years of age (Richard Weigl 2005).
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Associations

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Formal reports of predation upon ruffed lemurs are not available. However, likely predators include raptors, humans, and fossas.

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Nancy Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web
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Morphology

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Lemurs have long, soft fur and are famous for variation of color and pattern. In fact, many consider ruffed lemurs to be the most beautiful species in its family. At least five different coat patterns are found among these lemurs, including one in which an orangish-red color replaces almost all of the white coloration.

Black and white ruffed lemurs are among the largest of the true lemurs, with a head and body length of 51 to 60 cm and tail length of 56 to 65 cm (Nowak, 1987). Weights range from 3.2 to 4.5 kg. Females are larger than males (Black and White Ruffed Lemur, 1996).

The coat is long and soft, and color pattern may vary on different sides of the body (Nowak, 1987). In V. v. variegata, the coat is mostly black with large white areas on the head, back and limbs. The genus Varecia has a marking gland on the neck unlike Lemur, Eulemur, and Petterus (Nowak, 1987). In addition, other genera have only one pair of mammae, whereas Varecia has three pair.

Range mass: 3.2 to 4.5 kg.

Range length: 51 to 60 cm.

Sexual Dimorphism: female larger

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Life Expectancy

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Ruffed lemurs are thought to reach an average maximum age of 19 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
19 years.

Average lifespan
Sex: female
Status: captivity:
32.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
19.0 years.

Average lifespan
Sex: male
Status: captivity:
28.0 years.

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Nancy Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web
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Habitat

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Ruffed lemurs are tree dwellers and are the most arboreal of the true lemurs (AZA, 1994). They inhabit the wet evergreen forest on the eastern coast of Madagascar (Black and White Ruffed Lemur, 1996).

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: rainforest

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Distribution

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Ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata, are found in the eastern rain forest of Madagascar. Two subspecies are recognized: V. v. variegata and V. v. rubra. The Antainambalana River geographically separates the two subspecies; V. v. rubra is found north of the river, and V. v. variegata is found south. The latter subspecies is also found on the island of Nosy Mangabe.

Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: island endemic

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Untitled

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Although ruffed lemurs have previously been classified under the genus Lemur, due to the species' distinctive anatomical and behavioral characteristics, it is now placed in the genus Varecia.

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Behavior

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All primates show complex patterns of communication. In addition to their vocalizations, these animals use body postures and facial expressions to communicate. Tactile communication, in the form of grooming, play, and aggression, is also important. Members of both sexes are known to scent mark their territory.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Nancy Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web
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Conservation Status

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All lemurs are considered endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and are listed as Appendix I under CITES (AZA, 1994). They are listed as endangered by IUCN. The main threats to the survival of ruffed lemurs are habitat destruction, hunting for meat and fur, and exportation (Black and White Ruffed Lemur,1996).

These lemurs breed well in captivity and have thus benefited from a long-term, organized and well-managed breeding program (Madagascar Fauna Group, 1996). There are now over 225 individuals held in more than 50 North American institutions. Individuals from these populations will be released into established natural reserves in Madagascar.

Education also plays an important role in the conservation of ruffed lemurs. The two zoos of Madagascar with ruffed lemur exhibits are developing educational programs to help the Malagasy people become more environmentally aware (AZA, 1994).

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: appendix i

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: critically endangered

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Benefits

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Ruffed lemurs are not known to have any adverse effects on humans.

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Benefits

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Ruffed lemurs are both trapped and shot in Madagascar for the economic benefit of humans. Ruffed lemurs are often hunted for food, and they are also sold to humans as pets. Because they are such entertaining animals, these charismatic creatures, along with other lemur species, may bring ecotourists to Madagascar.

Positive Impacts: pet trade ; food ; ecotourism

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Associations

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As frugivores, these lemurs are likely to play some role in seed dispersal. To the extent that they serve as prey for other animals, they may also influence local food webs.

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Nancy Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web
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Trophic Strategy

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Varecia variegata is the most frugivorous of the living lemurs, but it also feeds on leaves, seeds and nectar according to the season (Primate of the Week, 1996). They have also been known to eat soil at times (Black and White Ruffed Lemur, 1996).

Plant Foods: leaves; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; nectar

Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore )

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Nancy Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web
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Reproduction

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The mating system of these lemurs is not well understood. These animals are usually found in what appear to be family groups, centered on a single mated pair. This indicates that the species is likely to be monogamous. However, because of variation in the social stucture, under which larger groups may be formed, there is a possibility that at least some populations are polygynous breeders.

Mating System: monogamous ; polygynous

Mating appears to occur in June and July. The estrous cycle of female ruffed lemurs lasts approximately 30 days with the estrous period averaging 6.25 days. Gestation is markedly shorter than in other lemurs, typically lasting between 90 and 102 days. Females are capable of having up to 6 offspring from a single pregnancy, but usually only 2 or 3 offspring are born at a time. In fact, over one-half of births are twins. Weaning occurs at approximately 135 days of age, and infants are close to adult size by the time they reach 6 months. Females are able to conceive at 20 months, but the average age of first reproduction is 3.4 years.

Breeding interval: Females are capable of producing young annually.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs in June and July.

Range number of offspring: 2 to 6.

Range gestation period: 90 to 102 days.

Average weaning age: 135 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 20 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; viviparous

Average birth mass: 87.2 g.

Average number of offspring: 2.2.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
608 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
604 days.

Mothers build nests for their newborns, usually in the fork of a tree. The female pulls out her own hair to line the nest. When it is necessary for the infant to be carried, the mother uses her mouth. This is distinctly different from most lemurs, whose infants cling to the mother's belly when young, then ride on her back as they get bigger. Infants are allowed to leave the nest at 3 weeks and are as mobile as their parents by the time they are 7 weeks old. The role of males in parental care has not been described.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Female)

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Hallgren, J. and J. Dubuc 1999. "Varecia variegata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varecia_variegata.html
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Jenny Hallgren, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Jennifer Dubuc, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Nancy Shefferly, Animal Diversity Web
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Biology

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The ruffed lemurs are arboreal forest dwellers, getting around by walking or running on larger branches and leaping from tree to tree (5). They enjoy a rich diet of fruit, nectar, seeds and leaves, obtaining the nectar by using their long snouts and tongues to reach deep inside the flowers. They are active mainly in the early morning and late afternoon (6), though nocturnal behaviour has been observed. Indeed the word 'lemur' means a 'night wandering ghost' referring to their stealthy, noiseless movement through the forest by night. When alarmed by predators, however, these primates are far from quiet, emitting an elaborate system of loud barks through the forest to alert other group members (3). These lemurs are social animals, with group sizes typically varying from 2-5 individuals, but occasionally numbering up to 30; their home ranges vary in size accordingly (6). Within the group the strongest bonds form between females, whilst those between males are much weaker. Interestingly, females are dominant to males, forming the core of the group and defending the territories, a system common only to Malagasy lemurs (3). Grouping patterns also change with the seasons, with females forming larger groups during the wet season and dispersing during the dry season in search of food. Social bonds in groups are established and reinforced by grooming, but whereas most other primates groom with their fingers, prosimians such as the ruffed lemur cannot manipulate their fingers and instead have developed an usual fascinating behaviour; their 6 bottom teeth project away from the jaw to form a comb which these primates use to groom their fur and the fur of other group members (3). The ruffed lemur reproduces seasonally with mating occurring between May and July, and the offspring are born in September and October (6). Unlike other lemurs, the ruffed lemurs give birth in well-concealed nests constructed of twigs and leaves, held 10 – 20 meters above the ground. Twins are the norm and after only four months the young are independent and as mobile and active as adults. However, infant mortality is high with about 65% of offspring failing to reach 3 months of age, dying from accidental falls and related injuries (2).
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Conservation

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Since 1994, international trade in ruffed lemur has been prohibited by their listing on Appendix 1 of the Convention of International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) (4). However, there is a greater threat of habitat destruction. Only about 10% of Madagascar's native vegetation now remains and so conservation efforts are being focussed on protecting the few existing patches of forests (3). The black-and-white ruffed lemur is known to occur in at least ten protected areas in Madagascar, though its numbers are sadly still declining (2). Tragically, the only protected area in which the red ruffed lemur was known to occur, the former Masoala Nature Reserve, was degazzetted in 1964 to permit timbering (9). This has had on-going devastating consequences for the ruffed lemur and other wildlife. In 1997 the Masoala National Park was re-opened, administered by ANGAP, an NGO affiliated with the Malagasy Government, with assistance from the Wildlife Conservation Society, Missouri Botanical Garden, CARE and the Peregrine Fund. This goes far toward protecting the red ruffed lemurs (11). As a result the Missouri Botanical Garden has taken action and proposed the creation of a 300,000 hectare national park on the Masoala Peninsula, with funding from USAID and other sources. There are also plans for staff training, research facilities and education programmes, with responsibility for the parks management lying with the regional forest association (9). It is hoped that this reserve will be a safe-haven for the red ruffed lemur. In North America, a captive breeding project for the ruffed lemur has been underway since the 1960s, under the Species Survival Plan (SSP) (10). The project has focused on increasing the genetic diversity of both the red and black-and-white ruffed lemur subspecies (10). Although this project has been a success, housing space for the lemurs is limited, restricting the success of the breeding program (10). Nine individuals of the black and white form were re-introduced to the Betampona Reserve in the Eastern forest between 1997 and 2001. This was a complex operation, beginning with choosing the captive ruffed which were genetically closest to the wild population of the local region. The released lemurs were closely monitored because animals which did not grow up in the wild have great difficulty in adapting. They fall prey to predators, or simply fall out of trees. Only one male survives, now integrated into a wild group, and one other pair produced triplets. Reintroduction is a long and costly process compared to protecting animals in their original habitat (12). It is hoped that ruffed lemurs will be reintroduced in Madagascar, though it is imperative that the reintroduction areas are declared safe first (2). There is now new hope for the ruffed lemur in Madagascar with captive breeding projects successfully underway, reintroduction programmes on the horizon and reserves being reviewed in Madagascar. It is however important that these become long term projects in order to allow the ruffed lemur time and space to recover (2).
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Description

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The ruffed lemur is the largest of the lemur family, and is divided into two very distinctive subspecies; the black-and-white ruffed lemur (V. variegata) and the red ruffed lemur (V. rubra) (2). The two subspecies are similar in shape, size, life history and behaviour but are different in colouration and habitat. The black-and-white ruffed lemur has, as its name suggests, a black and white pelage with white tufted ears, a long tail and bright, beady yellow eyes (5). The red ruffed lemur is a striking chestnut red colour, with a much more dense and luxuriant pelage, and a black coloured face, limbs and tail. Recent genetic studies strongly suggest that these two forms merit distinction as separate species, though a decision has not been made as yet (2).
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Habitat

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This species inhabits primary and secondary lowland and mid-altitude rainforest in Madagascar (2).
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Range

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The ruffed lemur, like all other lemurs, is endemic to Madagascar, a large island off the east coast of Africa. The black-and-white ruffed lemur inhabits the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, while the red ruffed lemur is restricted to the north east of the island and lives in the primary and secondary forests of the Masoala Peninsula. The Antainambalana River divides the ranges of these two subspecies (3).
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Status

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Classified as Endangered (EN A1cd) on the IUCN Red List 2004 (1) and listed on Appendix I of CITES (4).
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Threats

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As with other lemur species, the ruffed lemurs are threatened by habitat loss through logging and development in Madagascar (6). While this is a problem in many areas worldwide, Madagascar is particularly sensitive as it is an island and therefore has a limited amount of land for its wildlife and expanding human population (2). The ruffed lemur species seems to be particularly susceptible due to its high dependence on large fruiting trees for food in primary forest (2). These animals are also at risk due to extensive hunting on the island for meat and for sale as pets (5).
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Black-and-white ruffed lemur

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The black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata) is an endangered species of ruffed lemur, one of two which are endemic to the island of Madagascar. Despite having a larger range than the red ruffed lemur, it has a much smaller population that is spread out, living in lower population densities and reproductively isolated. It also has less coverage and protection in large national parks than the red ruffed lemur. Three subspecies of black-and-white ruffed lemur have been recognized since the red ruffed lemur was elevated to species status in 2001.[6]

Together with the red ruffed lemur, they are the largest extant members of the family Lemuridae, ranging in length from 100 to 120 cm (3.3 to 3.9 ft) and weighing between 3.1 and 4.1 kg (6.8 and 9.0 lb). They are arboreal, spending most of their time in the high canopy of the seasonal rainforests on the eastern side of the island. They are also diurnal, active exclusively in daylight hours. Quadrupedal locomotion is preferred in the trees and on the ground, and suspensory behavior is seen during feeding. As the most frugivorous of lemurs, the diet consists mainly of fruit, although nectar and flowers are also favored, followed by leaves and some seeds.[7]

The black-and-white ruffed lemur has a complex social structure and is known for its loud, raucous calls.[6] It is unusual in that it exhibits several reproductive traits typically found in small, nocturnal lemurs, such as a short gestation period, large litters and rapid maturation.[7] In captivity, they can live up to 36 years.[8]

Taxonomy

The black-and-white ruffed lemur is one of two species in the genus Varecia, the other being the red ruffed lemur (V. rubra). Three subspecies are recognized: the white-belted black-and-white ruffed lemur (V. v. subcincta), the Hill's ruffed lemur, (V. v. editorum), and the black-and-white ruffed lemur (V. v. variegata, the nominate subspecies).

Description

Close-up of head

Together with the red ruffed lemur, the species is the largest extant member of the family Lemuridae, ranging in length from 100 to 120 cm (3.3 to 3.9 ft) and weighing between 3.1 and 4.1 kg (6.8 and 9.0 lb).[9] The black-and-white ruffed lemur is always both black and white; the general color patterns do not usually vary. Abdomen, tail, hands and feet, inner limbs, forehead, face and crown are black. The fur is white on the sides, back, hind limbs and on the hindquarters. Males and females are alike.[10]

Distribution and habitat

The species inhabits the eastern rainforests of Madagascar. It occurs at low to moderate altitudes, in primary forests with tall and mature trees, and by preference deep inside contiguous blocks of vegetation, although patchy forests are made use of if necessary.[1]

The three subspecies have slightly different ranges. The white-belted black-and-white ruffed lemur is found furthest to the north,[11] the southern black-and-white ruffed lemur is found furthest to the south,[12] and the black-and-white ruffed lemur has a geographic range between the other two subspecies.[13]

Diet

Wild black-and-white ruffed lemurs have a highly frugivorous diet, with fruit making up 92% of their overall diet. Smaller percentages of leaves, nectar, seeds, and even fungi make up the remainder. Their diet is also influenced by the seasons, with certain plant parts and fruits only ripening or becoming available during certain times of the year. Water consumption also varies throughout the year and can be influenced by diet.[14] The number of tree species utilized by for food by the lemurs can range from 19 to 40 species depending on location. The larger part of fruit items in the diet is provided by four taxa of fruit trees: Ravensara species, Chrysophyllum boivinianum, Protorhus species, and Harungana madagascariensis.[15]

Behavior

Female dominance

Black-and-white ruffed lemurs demonstrate the rare behavior of female social dominance both within and outside the context of feedings. This is also found in other ruffed lemurs as well as in ring-tailed lemurs and red ruffed lemurs. Aggressive interactions between males and females are usually won by the female even when they do not show aggressive behavior towards the male. Unlike other species of lemurs, black-and-white ruffed lemur females occasionally show submission and more aggression needs to be maintained in order for the female to win the interaction instead of having an undecided interaction. Male aggression does not vary among seasons.[16]

One of the main reasons that black-and-white ruffed lemurs exhibit dominance is for feeding purpose; that is they are able to establish priority over males in feeding. Reproductive females need more access to food because of the costs of carrying and caring for offspring which is why they establish this feeding priority. Energy demands in this species are particularly high. Female dominance in feeding is maintained through demonstrating some aggressive behavior and leading the group to food in order to have first access to the food. Dominance is not thought to be established in younger females so groups lacking a mature female may not have a dominant female. When a dominant female is present, she leads the group to the food source and eats more than the rest of the group.[17]

Communication

The black-and-white ruffed lemur demonstrates several different call types each of which last several seconds. Most lemurs of a group participate in any one chorus. These lemurs are particularly known for their loud roar/shriek choruses which have several purposes including group movement, spacing among different groups, and alarming other members of the group of predators. Unlike the calls of other species, the calls of the black-and-white ruffed lemur are not likely to be for the establishment of territory for a group. The calling behavior is participated in throughout the course of a day, not concentrated at any one point of the day; however calls are usually not heard at night.[18]

Interspecific interactions

Black-and-white ruffed lemurs are known to form a natural hybrid zone with the red ruffed lemur. This zone may have once been very large before humans came into contact with the two subspecies. The calls of the two organisms differ in frequency and pulse rate.[19]

juvenile

Social structure

Studies of groups of black-and-white ruffed lemurs both in captivity and in the wild have demonstrated a variety of social structures from pairs to large groups. Groups have been shown to exhibit a range of fission fusion dynamics, meaning that group size can fluctuate based on resource availability. When resources (e.g. food) are plentiful, the environment can support a larger group of lemurs, but when resources are scarce, the group may split into smaller sub-groups to survive. The sub-groups can rejoin and split as needed with environmental and social cues.[20] Parenting in this species of lemurs is unique in that no single infant is invested in but instead, females bear litters of multiple offspring. Males also play a role in the parenting of the offspring especially in smaller groups where the certainty of paternity is high. In larger groups, the chance of a female mating with more than one male increases as does uncertainty in paternity. This tends to decrease the level of male care of offspring. Instead of clinging to the mother, offspring are placed into a nest which is guarded by both parents, described in detail below.[21]

Reproduction

Both males and females reach sexual maturity between the ages of 1.5 and 3 years, although breeding is not necessarily successful during the first year of maturity. Males exhibit testicular enlargement as they mature, which gradually increases over the months leading to their breeding window. After successfully breeding with a female, the male's testicles gradually reduce to normal. When females become sexually mature and enter estrus during the breeding season, their vaginas begin to open slightly, starting with a small pink dot and line, which is easily visible because the skin around the vulva is black. The pink area gradually opens over the course of several days. Once fully opened, vaginal estrus lasts 2–3 days. During this time, there is an even smaller window of time (6–12 hours) when the female is in behavioral estrus, and breeding is only possible during this period. After breeding, the female's vulva gradually closes and remains black and closed for the remainder of the year. Gestation lasts an average of 102.5 days and typically results in a litter of 2–6 offspring that are unable to cling to their mother, as in other primates. The female builds a nest where infants remain until they can leave it on their own. For the first two weeks after birth, the female stays with the infants nearly 24 hours a day.[22][23] Both males and females will guard the nest. There is evidence that related as well as unrelated females will deposit their infants in communal nests and share in parental care while other individuals forage, resulting in increased infant survival compared to single-nesting females.[24][25]

Conservation

All three subspecies of the black-and-white ruffed lemur are classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN.[26][27][28] The numbers of black-and-white ruffed lemurs are on a steep downward trend, dropping 80% in the 21 years before 2020, the equivalent to three generations.[1] The Vasey studies in 2003 indicated that Nosy Mangabe is the most densely populated area of black and white ruffed lemurs. It had around 29–43 individuals/km2. Next in decreasing order came Anatanamatazo with 10–15 individuals/km2, and then Manomba with.4-2.5 individuals/km2.[29]

Threats in the wild

While predators may be a large threat to the black and white ruffed lemur, the principal threat to their survival comes from the human inhabitants of the island. Since they are comparatively large to other species of lemurs they are hunted as bushmeat by poachers and village men who are looking to feed their families.[30] Another threat to the lemurs is the agricultural practices of the local community. The slash-and-burn method of agriculture is very devastating to the natural habitat of the black and white ruffed lemur.[31]

The black-and-white ruffed lemur is preyed upon by the Henst's goshawk (Accipiter henstii), fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), ring-tailed mongoose (Galidia elegans) and brown-tailed mongoose (Salanoia concolor). Nesting behavior poses the greatest risks for predation, especially mammalian predators.

Reintroduction

Black-and-white ruffed lemurs were part of a reintroduction program from 1997 to 2001, organized by the Madagascar Fauna Group and the Duke University Primate Center (now Duke Lemur Center). A total of 13 individuals that were born in human care in the United States were released at the Betampona Reserve, which is in their native range in the rainforests of eastern Madagascar.[32][33][34] Prior to being released, individuals were selected by the ruffed lemur Species Survival Plan based on genetic information, health status, life history, and behavioral traits.[35]

All of the individuals underwent a "boot camp" program prior to release that gave the lemurs experience in a free-range naturally wooded environment.[36] During this time, the lemurs were able to improve their physical abilities in a forest canopy as well as forage for naturally growing food. The lemurs were released in 3 groups, each consisting of a family group or pairing, to mimic their natural grouping patterns.[35]

Once released into the wild, the animals each had radio transmitting collars, to aid in the research and monitoring possibilities post-release. The lemurs were provided with some supplementary food and their health and behavior was monitored.[35] At least 5 of the released individuals were killed by fossa, a native predator of lemurs, including a breeding pair that had previously raised triplets.[33] Of the surviving lemurs, at least 1 male successfully merged with an existing wild group and reproduced.[35] Future reintroduction efforts are halted due to habitat degradation and fragmentation.[31]

References

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  17. ^ Overdorff, Deborah J.; Erhart, Elizabeth M. & Mutschler, Thomas (2005). "Does Female Dominance Facilitate Feeding Priority in Black-and-white Ruffed Lemurs (Varecia variegata) in Southeastern Madagascar?" (PDF). American Journal of Primatology. 66 (1): 7–22. doi:10.1002/ajp.20125. PMID 15898069. S2CID 35182546.
  18. ^ Geissmann, Thomas & Mutschler, Thomas (2006). "Diurnal Distribution of Loud Calls in Sympatric Wild Indris (Indri indri) and Ruffed Lemurs (Varecia variegata): Implications for Call Functions" (PDF). Primates; Journal of Primatology. 47 (4): 393–6. doi:10.1007/s10329-006-0189-5. PMID 16736264. S2CID 1586657.
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  20. ^ Baden, Andrea L.; Webster, Timothy H.; Kamilar, Jason M. (2016). "Resource Seasonality and Reproduction Predict Fission–Fusion Dynamics in Black-and-White Ruffed Lemurs (Varecia variegata)". American Journal of Primatology. 78 (2): 256–279. doi:10.1002/ajp.22507. PMID 26606154. S2CID 37492301.
  21. ^ White, F. J.; Balko, E. A.; Fox, E. A. (1993). "Male transfer in captive ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata variegata" (PDF). In Kappeler, P. M.; Ganzhorn, J. U (eds.). Lemur Social Systems and their Ecological Basis. Plenum. pp. 41–49.
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  24. ^ Baden, Andrea L.; Wright, Patricia C.; Louis Jr., Edward E.; Bradley, Brenda J. (2013). "Communal nesting, kinship, and maternal success in a social primate". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 67 (12): 1939–1950. doi:10.1007/s00265-013-1601-y. S2CID 18119412.
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  26. ^ Louis, E.E.; Sefczek, T.M.; Raharivololona, B.; King, T.; Morelli, T.L.; Baden, A. (2020). "Varecia variegata ssp. editorum". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T136895A115586802. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
  27. ^ Louis, E.E.; Sefczek, T.M.; Raharivololona, B.; King, T.; Morelli, T.L.; Baden, A. (2020). "Varecia variegata ssp. subcincta". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T136934A115587032. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
  28. ^ Louis, E.E.; Sefczek, T.M.; Raharivololona, B.; King, T.; Morelli, T.L.; Baden, A. (2020). "Varecia variegata ssp. variegata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T22919A115574404. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
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Black-and-white ruffed lemur: Brief Summary

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The black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata) is an endangered species of ruffed lemur, one of two which are endemic to the island of Madagascar. Despite having a larger range than the red ruffed lemur, it has a much smaller population that is spread out, living in lower population densities and reproductively isolated. It also has less coverage and protection in large national parks than the red ruffed lemur. Three subspecies of black-and-white ruffed lemur have been recognized since the red ruffed lemur was elevated to species status in 2001.

Together with the red ruffed lemur, they are the largest extant members of the family Lemuridae, ranging in length from 100 to 120 cm (3.3 to 3.9 ft) and weighing between 3.1 and 4.1 kg (6.8 and 9.0 lb). They are arboreal, spending most of their time in the high canopy of the seasonal rainforests on the eastern side of the island. They are also diurnal, active exclusively in daylight hours. Quadrupedal locomotion is preferred in the trees and on the ground, and suspensory behavior is seen during feeding. As the most frugivorous of lemurs, the diet consists mainly of fruit, although nectar and flowers are also favored, followed by leaves and some seeds.

The black-and-white ruffed lemur has a complex social structure and is known for its loud, raucous calls. It is unusual in that it exhibits several reproductive traits typically found in small, nocturnal lemurs, such as a short gestation period, large litters and rapid maturation. In captivity, they can live up to 36 years.

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