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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 19.7 years (captivity)
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Benefits

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It is estimated that the Australian commercial fruit industry loses approximately $20 million per year to flying foxes (not just P. alecto). Because of this, P. alecto is shot as an orchard pest in many areas. It also is known to carry/contract bat Lyssavirus, which is similar to the rabies virus and can be contracted by humans. However, it is not known how easily Lyssavirus is transmitted to humans or other mammals.

Negative Impacts: crop pest; causes or carries domestic animal disease

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Associations

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Little information exists on predation in black flying foxes.

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Morphology

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Pteropus alecto has a black body with some lighter hairs, and a black head. These animals may have a brown eye-ring, and often have a reddish collar on the back of the neck. The legs are furred to the knee, but are hairless below. The forearm length measures 153 to 191 mm and average weight is 667g.

Average mass: 667 g.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Life Expectancy

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It is unknown how long black flying foxes live, however, it has been estimated that the females which survive to maturity would need to live about 7 years to maintain a stable population. Approximately 30 % of females born survive to maturity, compared to 37% in males. Survival rates vary between camps and between years. In years in which food is more abundant, lower levels of mortality are expected.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
4.5 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
19.7 years.

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Habitat

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In Australia, black flying foxes are found in the subtropical and tropical latitudes, primarily in the coastal areas of the northern territory and as far as 250 km inland. Their habitat consists of rainforest, eucalyptus open forest, and savanna woodland. They roost primarily in bamboo, rainforests, and mangroves. However, there have been a few known roosting sites in caves and overhangs. Palmer and Woinarski (1999) found that, during the cooler dry season months, 74% of black flying foxes roosted in bamboo, 20% in mangroves, and 6% in rainforest habitats. During the build-up season (characterized by warming temperatures and early rains), 68% roosted in rainforest, 17% roosted in mangroves, and 15% roosted in bamboo. During the wet season, 52% roosted in rainforest, 28% in bamboo, and 20% roosted in mangroves.

Black flying foxes roosting in bamboo thickets roost 12 to 16 m off the ground, space themselves less than 1 m apart, and forage predominantly in woodland habitat. Those roosting in rainforests roost more than 18 m off the ground, space themselves approximately 1 m apart, and forage predominantly in forest and rainforest habitat dominated by Melaleuca species. Females use camps more than males, and smaller camps tend to be primarily made up of males and sub-adults.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest

Wetlands: swamp

Other Habitat Features: riparian

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Distribution

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Pteropus alecto is found in the Australian and Oriental regions of the world. It is found from tropical/subtropical Australia to Sulawesi (from 0 to 29° south latitude).

Biogeographic Regions: oriental (Native ); australian (Native ); oceanic islands (Native )

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Trophic Strategy

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Black flying foxes are dietary generalists known to feed on fruits, pollen, and nectar of 23 rainforest species. These species include Carpentaria acuminata, Terminalia microcarpa, Diospyros littorea, Elaeocarpus arnhemicus, Ficus opposita, Ficus racemosa, Ficus scobina, Ficus virens, Eucalyptus miniata, Eucalyptus papuana, Eucalyptus polycarpa, Eucalyptus tetrodonta, Lophostemon grandiflorus, Lophostemon lactifluus, Melaleuca dealbata, Melaleuca viridiflora, Syzygium nervosum, Passiflora foetida, Grevillea pteridifolia, Nauclea orientalis, Timonius timon, Cupaniopsis anacardioides, and Gmelina schlechteri.

Black flying foxes forage on different resources depending upon the time of year. During the dry season, they forage primarily in Eucalyptus open forest. During the build-up season, they forage primarily in the Melaleuca open forest, and during the wet season, they forage primarily in rainforest. It has been suggested that P. alecto selects sites that are richer in resources than floristically similar sites, which suggests that apparently similar habitats are actually different in resource abundance.

Plant Foods: fruit; nectar; pollen

Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore , Nectarivore )

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Associations

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Because of its ability to access patchily distributed resources, P. alecto probably plays an important role in connecting isolated fragments of rainforest by transporting seeds and pollen between feeding sites. It is probably an important pollinator of 2 Eucalyptus species in northern Australia, and it is also probably an important pollinator and seed disperser in Syzygium species.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Benefits

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Throughout much of its range, P. alecto is hunted for food.

Positive Impacts: food

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Conservation Status

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Pteropus alecto is currently listed under CITES appendix II and is not mentioned on the IUCN Red List or the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Behavior

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Little information exists on communication in black flying foxes. However, as mammals, they are likely to use visual signals, tactile communication, scent information, and vocalizations.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Untitled

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There have been some individuals that appear to be hybrids between black flying foxes and grey-headed flying foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus). These individuals had characteristics of both parent species, however, genetic testing of these hybrids failed to confirm that they were hybrids. The authors note that further testing needs to be done to conclude whether or not these individuals are actually hybrids.

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Reproduction

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Little information exists on mating systems in black flying foxes.

Peak birth times are correlated with periods of maximal plant productivity, hence, the timing of births varies with location. In Brisbane, Australia, most births are in October to November. In the northern territory of Australia, peak birth times are from January to March, and births in November are unusual but not rare.

It takes females 14.8 to 17 months and males 16.3 to 18 months to reach adult size. Females tend to grow faster than males. On average, females gain 2.56 g/day and their forearms grow 0.25 mm/day. On average, males gain 2.28 g/day and their forearms grow 0.15 mm/day.

Breeding interval: These bats appear to breed annually.

Breeding season: The breeding and therefore birthing seasons vary with geography, and are timed so that births occur during the time of maximum fruit productivity.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; viviparous

Average number of offspring: 1.2.

Little information exists on parental care in black flying foxes. As mammals, it is likely that females play the largest role in parental care. They provide offspring with protection and nourishment until they are independent and weaned. However, beyond that basic speculation, information is not available.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; pre-fertilization (Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Protecting)

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Ten Pas, D. 2004. "Pteropus alecto" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pteropus_alecto.html
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Diane Ten Pas, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
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Biology

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These nocturnal animals rest during the day in communal roosts (known as camps) of up to hundreds of thousands of individuals (in the Northern Territory, roosts rarely exceed 30,000 animals), which they sometimes share with the grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) or little red flying fox (Pteropus scapulatus ). Temperature is regulated by the bats wrapping their wings tightly around themselves if cold or wet, and flapping their outstretched wings when hot (2). Come sunset, thousands of bats set off to feed, using sight and smell (7) to find the nectar, fruit and blossom of trees such as eucalypts, paperbarks and turpentine trees (2) (6). These bats utilise different resources depending upon the time of year, and may travel up to 50 kilometres a night in search of food (2) (6) (9). When native foods are scarce, particularly during drought, the bats take introduced or commercial fruits such as mangoes (5). Leaves are also eaten by chewing them to a pulp, swallowing the juice and expelling the pulp, and fig fruits are also eaten in this way (6). During the mating season from February through to April (10), depending on the region, males establish and defend a small territory of about one metre along a branch, where they spend time grooming and displaying their genitalia (2) (6). Young are born between October and March in southern Australia (2) (10) or July and August in northern Australia, with birth peaks at maximum local plant productivity (2), when lots of trees are in bloom and there's plenty of fruit to feed upon (7). A single young is born and carried by its mother for the first month of life, after which it is left behind in the roost when the mother is off feeding (2). At two to three months old the pup can fly and will begin to follow its mother at night to forage and learn crucial life skills, gaining independence three months later (2) (6).
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Conservation

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Since the black flying fox is not considered endangered, and even appears to be increasing its numbers and extending its range in Australia, no targeted conservation efforts have been undertaken to protect the species (5).
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Description

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The black flying fox is Australia's largest bat and, with an incredible wingspan of over a metre, is amongst the largest bats in the world (4). As its name suggests, the body is almost completely black in colour, relieved only by an incomplete rusty-red collar and a light frosting of white-tipped hairs on the abdomen (5) (6). Sometimes these bats have a reddish-brown eye-ring, and the lower leg is un-furred (6). During the day, thousands of bats can be seen in huge, noisy colonies amongst the treetops. Come dusk, vast numbers clutter the darkening night sky as they fly off in search of food, shrieking as they go (7) (8).
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Habitat

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Large colonies or 'camps' roost in trees in bamboo, rainforest, eucalyptus open forest, savannah woodland, and mangrove or paperbark swamps (6) (9). There have also been a few known roosting sites in caves and overhangs, but this is very rare (9).
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Range

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Found in coastal and near-coastal areas across northern, eastern and western Australia, as well as in southern Papua New Guinea and Nusa Tenggara and Sulawesi in Indonesia (5) (6).
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Status

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Classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (1), and listed on Appendix II of CITES (3).
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Threats

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Although the black flying fox is not listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List, there are some issues that potentially threaten its survival. Clearing and fragmentation of native vegetation, mostly as the result of urban development, agriculture and intensive forestry, has reduced the availability of roost sites and feeding areas for this species (5). The black flying fox also suffers from persecution from farmers as an orchard pest. It is estimated that the Australian commercial fruit industry loses approximately $20 million a year to flying foxes and, as a consequence, they are shot in many areas (9).
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Black flying fox

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The black flying fox or black fruit bat (Pteropus alecto) is a bat in the family Pteropodidae. It is among the largest bats in the world, but is considerably smaller than the largest species in its genus, Pteropus. The black flying fox is native to Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia. It is not a threatened species.

Taxonomy

Juvenile specimens of this species from Moa Island in Torres Strait have been described as a separate species, Pteropus banakrisi.[2] This supposed species was known as the "Torresian flying fox" or "Moa Island fruit bat".

Description

The black flying fox has short, black hair with a contrasting reddish-brown mantle, and a mean forearm length of 164 mm (6.46 in) and a mean weight of 710 g (1.57 lb). It is one of the largest bat species in the world, and has a wingspan of more than 1 m.

Distribution

Black flying foxes are native to Australia (New South Wales, Queensland, Northern Territory and Western Australia), Papua New Guinea (Western Province) and Indonesia (West Papua, Sulawesi, Sumba, and Savu).

Roosting habits

During the day, individuals reside in large roosts (colonies or 'camps') consisting of hundreds to tens of thousands of individuals. They sometimes share their roosts with the grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus), the spectacled flying fox (P. conspicillatus), and/or the little red flying fox (P. scapulatus). They roost in mangroves, paperbark swamps, patches of rainforest and bamboo forests, and very rarely in caves or underneath overhangs.

Reproduction

Black flying foxes breed once a year. A single young is born and carried by its mother for the first month of life, after which it is left behind in the roost when the mother is out foraging at night.

Diet

Black flying fox feeding on a palm, Brisbane, Australia

Black flying foxes eat pollen and nectar from native eucalyptus, lilypillies, paperbark, and turpentine trees. When native foods are scarce, particularly during drought, the bats may take introduced or commercial fruits, such as mangos and apples. This species had been known to travel up to 50 km (31 mi) a night in search of food. In residential areas, the species has adapted to eating introduced cocos palm trees as a substitute for scarcer native species - and now accounts for around 30% of the animals' food source. However, the high acidity of the palm fruits can prove toxic and may lead to death.[3]

Conservation

Group in northern New South Wales, Australia

The black flying fox is not listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List; nevertheless, the species is exposed to several threats, including loss of foraging and roosting habitat, and mass die-offs caused by extreme temperature events.[4] Because climate change is predicted to make Australia hotter, the negative impacts this species faces from extreme temperature events are expected to grow into a larger problem.[5] According to one study, these animals begin to die once temperatures reach above 40°C.[5] Another study of records from wildlife rehabilitation clinics in Australia found that heat stress particularly affected black flying foxes compared to other flying fox species. Clinic records indicated that 46% of wildlife rescues of black flying foxes were due to heat stress, compared to 18% of grey-headed flying fox rescues and 8% of little red flying fox rescues.[6]

When present in urban environments, black flying foxes are sometimes perceived as a nuisance. Because their roosting and foraging habits bring the species into conflict with humans, it suffers from direct killing of animals in orchards and harassment and destruction of roosts. In Indonesia, this species is frequently consumed as bushmeat, with concerns that the population loss might not be sustainable.[7]

As a disease vector

Negative public perception of the species has intensified with the discovery of three recently emerged zoonotic viruses that are potentially fatal to humans: Australian bat lyssavirus,[8] Hendra virus, and Menangle virus. However, only the Australian bat lyssavirus is known from two isolated cases to be directly transmissible from bats to humans.

Wildlife rescue

Flying foxes often come to the attention of Australian wildlife care and rescue organisations, such as Wildcare Australia,[9] Orphan Native Animal Rear and Release Association Incorporated,[10] Wildlife Carers Darling Downs, Bat Care, Bat Rescue, Tweed Valley Wildlife Carers, and WIRES when reported as injured, sick, orphaned or abandoned. A very high proportion of adult flying fox injuries are caused by entanglement in barbed wire fences or loose, improperly erected fruit tree netting, both of which can result in very serious injuries and a slow, agonizing death for the animal if not rescued quickly.

References

  1. ^ Roberts, B.; Eby, P.; Tsang, S.M.; Sheherazade (2017). "Pteropus alecto". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T18715A22080057. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T18715A22080057.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ Helgen, Kristofer M. (2004), "On the Identity of Flying-Foxes, genus Pteropus (Mammalia: Chiroptera), from Islands in the Torres Strait, Australia." Zootaxa 780:1–14.
  3. ^ "Remove Cocos to deter flying foxes". Queensland Times. 15 July 2013. Retrieved September 7, 2014.
  4. ^ Australian flying fox die-offs
  5. ^ a b Welbergen, Justin A; Klose, Stefan M; Markus, Nicola; Eby, Peggy (2007-11-28). "Climate change and the effects of temperature extremes on Australian flying-foxes". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1633): 419–425. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1385. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 2596826. PMID 18048286.
  6. ^ Mo, Matthew; Roache, Mike; Haering, Ron; Kwok, Alan (2021). "Using wildlife carer records to identify patterns in flying-fox rescues: a case study in New South Wales, Australia". Pacific Conservation Biology. 27 (1): 61. doi:10.1071/pc20031. ISSN 1038-2097. S2CID 225528523.
  7. ^ Mickleburgh, S., Waylen, K., & Racey, P. (2009). Bats as bushmeat: a global review. Oryx, 43(02), 217-234.
  8. ^ "Australian Bat Lyssavirus Infection in a Captive Juvenile Black Flying-Fox". Field, H. and McCall, Bradley J. and Barrett, J. (1999). Emerging Infectious Diseases, 5 (3).[1]
  9. ^ "Wildcare Australia Inc". Retrieved January 11, 2013.
  10. ^ "An Introduction to O.N.A.R.R." O.N.A.R.R. Retrieved January 11, 2013.
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Black flying fox: Brief Summary

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Roosting colony of Black Flying Fox in Perrin Park, Brisbane, Australia, in late afternoon. Children in an adjacent playground can be heard also. recorded 9 September 2018 Problems playing this file? See media help.

The black flying fox or black fruit bat (Pteropus alecto) is a bat in the family Pteropodidae. It is among the largest bats in the world, but is considerably smaller than the largest species in its genus, Pteropus. The black flying fox is native to Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia. It is not a threatened species.

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