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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 12.6 years (wild)
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Untitled

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Eastern meadowlarks are not true larks; rather they belong to the same family as blackbirds and orioles (Icteridae). There are about 18 recognized subspecies of the eastern meadowlark.

The decline of the S. magna populations could be partially due to the industrialization of agriculture, which increases the likelihood of a nest being destroyed by the agricultural machinery and the increased use of row crops which are an unsuitable habitat for these birds. Another possible cause of the decline is apparent predation by cattle. Cattle have been documented destroying nests, sometimes by accident but also by crushing eggs and nestlings with their muzzles and by removing nestlings from the nests.

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Tamar Dexheimer, Kalamazoo College
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Behavior

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The songs of S. magna are one of the first birdsongs of spring. Sturnella magna have a variety of vocal communications. There are begging notes, location notes, dzert, whistle, chatter, weet, primary song, flight song, female song, zeree, and tee-tee-tee. Nestlings and recently fledged juveniles use begging and location notes, which are simple high-pitched notes. These notes enable the parents to find and feed their young. The dzert call indicates mild disturbance. The whistle indicates intense excitement in males or females, such as the presence of a predator, just before a flight song, or immediately after an aerial chase or copulation. Both sexes use the chatter call to indicate excitement such as the presence of a predator or intruder. Females also chatter after copulation and in response to their mates’ primary song. Only males use the primary song, which sounds like seee-yeee, seee-yer. In the courtship period, female S. magna use the female song, during early morning preening. The alarm call of the eastern meadowlark is a short buzzy, dzert.

Posturing and aerial chases are used to attract and pursue possible mates. Jump-flights are used to ward off males that are intruding on another male’s territory. Bill-tilting and tail- and wing-flashing are used in territorial disputes, as is expansion posturing. Expansion posturing is when individuals extend their contour feathers, spread the tail, and draws the head close to the body. Female S. magna use expansion posturing to warn off its mate when the female is unreceptive. If expansion posturing does not succeed in warning off the male, the female will hold its feathers tight against its body and point its gaping bill at the male. Male eastern meadowlarks also use expansion posturing after the formation of the pair bond.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Conservation Status

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According to the IUCN Red List, the U.S. Federal List, and the State of Michigan List, eastern meadowlarks have no special status. They are not threatened, likely to become threatened, or endangered. This agrees with the Audubon Society's assessment of S. magna. Eastern meadowlarks fall into the Audubon Society's green conservation status, which means that it is of low or no conservation concern. However, S. magna populations have been experiencing a significant population decline, declining by as much as 50% since 1966.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Benefits

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Sturnella species eat kernels of sprouting grain, which can destroy portions of newly planted crops.

Negative Impacts: crop pest

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Benefits

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Sturnella magna eat insects that are crop pests, therefore they act to control pest populations that impact crops.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Associations

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Eastern meadowlarks are prey for larger predators and they prey on a variety of insects, including grubs and caterpillars, which could damage the surrounding vegetation. They also act to disperse the sees of plants they eat. Sturnella magna serves as a host for a variety of internal and external parasites, and for brown-headed cowbirds. Brown-headed cowbirds are obligate parasites, which lay eggs in the nests of other species of birds.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; biodegradation ; soil aeration

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • Microtetrameres sturnellae
  • Phthiraptera
  • Siphonaptera
  • brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater)
  • Hippoboscidae
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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Trophic Strategy

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Eastern meadowlarks walk and run on the ground while foraging for food, they also forage by probing beneath the soil. Their diet varies with the season. In the spring they feed mainly on cutworms, grubs, and caterpillars. When summer comes they eat insects, primarily beetles and grasshoppers. In the winter they eat noxious weed seeds and waste grains as well as some wildfruits and occasional carrion from road-kill or predator-kills.

Animal Foods: carrion ; insects

Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore ); herbivore (Granivore )

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Tamar Dexheimer, Kalamazoo College
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Distribution

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Sturnella magna is found in the eastern United States, as well as parts of the southwest U.S. and Central America. The summer breeding range includes parts of southern Canada.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Habitat

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Eastern meadowlarks breed in native grasslands, pastures, savannas, alfalfa and hay fields, cropland borders, roadsides, orchards, golf courses, airports, reclaimed strip mines, overgrown fields, and other open areas. In the western range, the breeding range also consists of tall-grass prairies and desert grassland. In the winter they are generally found in open country, cultivated fields, feedlots, and marshes. Eastern meadowlarks are generally found in habitats that are more mesic than their close relative, western meadowlarks (S. neglecta).

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland

Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Life Expectancy

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Eastern meadowlarks have an expected lifespan of five years in the wild, which is the same as the high end of its expected lifespan in captivity. The longest know lifespan in the wild is nine years.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
9 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
5 years.

Typical lifespan
Status: captivity:
3 to 5 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
151 months.

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Morphology

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Eastern meadowlarks are medium-sized songbirds, with long, slender, light gray bills and dark brown eyes. The tails are short and have rigid rectrices. The legs and toes are long. Male S. magna have grayish heads with blackish stripes, a yellow “eyebrow”, and dark crowns with a median stripe. The wings and tail are streaked and barred with dark and light brown. Males have a broad white moustachial stripe and a yellow chin, which is divided from the underparts by a broad black breast band. The underparts turn off-white on the streaked flanks and under the tail coverts. The pale undertail coverts are streaked and spotted dusky black. Females are similar to males except that they are smaller, paler, and have a narrower breast band. Males are slightly larger than females, from 21 to 25 cm in length, females are from 19 to 23 cm. Juvenile eastern meadowlarks have masked black areas and the white areas are buffish. Juveniles also have more brown plumage in the winter. Eastern meadowlark eggs are white, speckled with reddish-brown. When these birds walk, the tail constantly jerks open. These birds fly by beating their wings vigorously and then gliding.

Range mass: 90 to 150 g.

Range length: 19 to 26 cm.

Range wingspan: 35 to 40 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Associations

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Eastern meadowlarks are preyed on by hawks and falcons and occasionally by owls. They are most likely to be preyed upon by owls during the owl’s breeding season. While the owls are raising their young, they are more likely to hunt during daylight hours, in order to catch enough prey to feed the chicks. Hawks and falcons are diurnal, and often hunt in similar habitats. During their nesting season, domestic cats, dogs, foxes, coyotes, and skunks prey upon the eggs and nestlings. Eastern meadowlark coloration helps them to blend in to their grassland surroundings, they can be difficult to spot unless they are on a high perch.

Known Predators:

  • domestic cats (Felis silvestris)
  • dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)
  • foxes (Vulpes)
  • skunks (Mephitidae)
  • hawks (Accipitridae)
  • falcons (Falconidae)
  • sometimes owls (Strigiformes)
  • coyotes (Canis latrans)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Reproduction

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Male eastern meadowlarks are polygynous, with most males having two to three mates. Female S. magna have only one mate per breeding season, provided that the male successfully defends the territory. Males establish their territories approximately two to four weeks before females arrive. Male S. magna display their territories with flight displays and by singing. Female eastern meadowlarks choose their mates by selecting territories, which are defended by males with conspecific vocalizations. Once the pair bond forms the pair remains close together while foraging and searching for nest sites. A male S. magna defends its territory against rivals by fluffing out its plumage and pointing its bill upwards. Males guard their mates from neighboring males by constantly guarding their mate.

Males establish their territories in March, females arrive about two to four weeks later females. Male eastern meadowlarks rarely engage in body contact and fighting when defending their territories, however, when it does occur it can be quite severe. Pairing occurs immediately after females arrive. The "aerial chase" occurs within minutes of a female choosing a male. The female typically initiates the chase, although sometimes the chase includes two females and one male. The aerial chase consists of either a series of short flights or as brief flights interspersed with periods of posturing and rest. Additionally, the male is typically silent during the aerial chase. These chases usually carry the participants well beyond the boundaries of the male’s territory. When a female eastern meadowlark is receptive, she eventually assumes the receptive posture, at which time the male will approach, paw the female’s back and then mount. Afterwards the female remains in a semi-receptive position and flutters and shakes its plumage, chatters several times, then vigorously preens itself. The female receptive posture consists of the female elevating its bill and tail, holding its wings slightly drooped, and quivering, sometimes the female also chatters. Later on in the breeding season "jump-flights" and tee-tee-tee calls may accompany the receptive posture. However, if a male approaches when the female is not receptive, the female will use "expansion posturing" to warn off the male. Also, males and females make jump-flights before and during repeated copulation periods. A jump-flight consists of the bird jumping approximately one meter into the air and then flying several meters. Once the breeding season is over, male S. magna cease defending their territories.

Mating System: polygynous

Female eastern meadowlarks gather nest materials and build the nest. The nest consists of coarse grasses, lined with finer grasses and is constructed on the ground, typically in a shallow depression. The outside diameter of the nest ranges from 14-21 cm, the inside diameter ranges from 8-15 cm, and the inside depth ranges from 5-8 cm. Female S. magna land a distance away from the nest and then stealthily approach the nest.

Breeding interval: Breeding first occurs in late May, with a second brood produced in late June to early July.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from late May to August.

Range eggs per season: 6 to 14.

Range time to hatching: 13 to 15 days.

Range fledging age: 11 to 12 days.

Range time to independence: 2 (low) weeks.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Average eggs per season: 5.

Females incubate the eggs for 13 to 15 days, when the altricial young hatch. After the eggs hatch both the female and her mate feed the hatchlings. However, females do most of the feeding. Nestlings typically fledge 11 to 12 days after hatching, but juveniles do not become independent for at least another two weeks. The parents continue to feed the fledglings until they become independent.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Female)

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Dexheimer, T. 2006. "Sturnella magna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sturnella_magna.html
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Brief Summary

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The Eastern Meadowlark is found in the eastern United States and adjacent Canada south through Mexico (except for Baja California and northwestern Mexico) to central Panama and in South America from northern and eastern Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Surinam south, east of the Andes, to Amazonian Brazil. Except in the most northern part of the range, Eastern Meadowlarks are year-round residents. The Eastern Meadowlark is a bird of open fields and pastures, meadows, and prairies and populations in the eastern United States have declined in recent decades as acreage of these habitats has declined. The diet of the Eastern Meadowlark consists mainly of insects and seeds. The male Eastern Meadowlark defends his territory by singing, often from a fencepost or other raised perch. In courtship, the male faces the female, puffs out his chest feathers and points his bill straight up, prominently displaying the black "V" on his bright yellow underparts, and flicks his wings, sometimes even jumping into the air. Males may mate with more than one female. The nest is built by the female on the ground in a small depression in dense grass. It is a domed structure made of grass stems with the entrance on the side, often with narrow trails leading through the grass to the nest. The 3 to 5 (sometimes as many as 7) eggs, which are white and heavily spotted with brown and purple, are incubated by the female for 13 to 15 days. Both parents (but especially the female) feed the nestlings, which leave the nest around 11 to 12 days, at which point they are still unable to fly and are tended by parents for at least two more weeks. Two broods per year are typical. The Eastern Meadowlark is extremely similar to the Western Meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) in color and pattern, but has a very different song. The two generally do not interbreed where their ranges overlap and hybrids are largely sterile (Lanyon 1979), but they do actively defend their territories against members of the other species. Birds in the dry desert grasslands of the southwestern United States and adjacent Mexico may represent a distinct species, referred to as Lilian's Meadowlark (S. lilianae) (Barker et al. 2008). (Kaufman 1996; AOU 1998)
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Comprehensive Description

provided by Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology
Sturnella magna (Linnaeus)

Previously (Friedmann, 1963:126–127) there were some 32 records of cowbird parasitism on this uncommonly reported host. We may now more than double this number, as follows. In the nest record files at Cornell University there are data on 244 nests of the eastern meadowlark, 15 of which (6.1 percent) had cowbird eggs in them. In Nebraska Bennett (1973, 1974) reported 3 more instances of parasitism; the Western Foundation has a parasitized set of eggs from Amboy, Illinois. In Ontario, the nest records files at Toronto show that 8 (3.9 percent) of 206 nests reported were parasitized (Peck, 1975). P. F. Elliott informs us that in Riley County, Kansas, in 1974 and 1975 he found 28 (70.0 percent) of 40 nests to be parasitized. These data support the earlier (1963) statement that the eastern meadowlark is parasitized most heavily in the central part of North America, although none of the data previously available showed an incidence of parasitism approaching that of Elliott's sample. The meadowlarks in Elliott's study fledged a number of cowbirds. These are the first cases known in which cowbird parasitism of this species was successful. Elliott also found some evidence that cowbirds in his area had specialized on and adapted to particular host species, as indicated by the fact that cowbird eggs found in meadowlark nests were significantly heavier than those found in the nests of smaller hosts such as the grasshopper sparrow and the dickcissel (Elliott, 1975).

YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD
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Friedmann, Herbert, Kiff, Lloyd F., and Rothstein, Stephen I. 1977. "A further contribution of knowledge of the host relations of the parasitic cowbirds." Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 1-75. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00810282.235

Eastern meadowlark

provided by wikipedia EN

The eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna) is a medium-sized blackbird (family: Icteridae), very similar in appearance to sister species western meadowlark. It occurs from eastern North America to northern South America, where it is also most widespread in the east. The Chihuahuan meadowlark was formerly considered to be conspecific with the eastern meadowlark.

Taxonomy

The eastern meadowlark was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He placed it with the larks and pipits in the genus Alauda and adopted the binomial name Alauda magna.[2] Linnaeus based his description on the "large lark" that had been described and illustrated in 1729–1732 by the English naturalist Mark Catesby. Catesby also used the Latin Alauda magna but as his book predates the introduction of the binomial system, he is not acknowledged as the authority. Catesby reported that "they inhabit Carolina, Virginia and most of the Northern continent of America."[3] Confusingly, Linnaeus specified the habitat as "America, Africa".[2] The type location was restricted to South Carolina by the American Ornithologist's Union in 1931.[4][5] The eastern meadowlark is now placed with the western meadowlark and Chihuahuan meadowlark in the genus Sturnella that was introduced in 1816 by the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot.[6][7] The name Sturnella is a diminutive of the Latin sturnus meaning "starling".[8]

Fourteen subspecies are recognised:[7]

  • S. m. magna (Linnaeus, 1758) – southeast Canada and central, east USA
  • S. m. argutula Bangs, 1899 – south-central, southeast USA
  • S. m. hoopesi Stone, 1897 – south Texas (south-central USA) and northeast Mexico
  • S. m. saundersi Dickerman & Phillips, AR, 1970 – southeast Oaxaca (south Mexico)
  • S. m. alticola Nelson, 1900 – south Mexico to Costa Rica
  • S. m. mexicana Sclater, PL, 1861 – southeast Mexico to Belize and Guatemala
  • S. m. griscomi Van Tyne & Trautman, 1941 – north Yucatán (southeast Mexico)
  • S. m. inexspectata Ridgway, 1888 – Honduras and northeast Nicaragua
  • S. m. subulata Griscom, 1934 – Panama
  • S. m. meridionalis Sclater, PL, 1861 – north-central Colombia to northwest Venezuela
  • S. m. paralios Bangs, 1901 – north Colombia and north, central Venezuela
  • S. m. praticola Chubb, C, 1921 – llanos of east Colombia and southeast Venezuela to Guyana and Suriname
  • S. m. monticola Chubb, C, 1921 – montane south Venezuela, the Guianas and north Brazil
  • S. m. hippocrepis (Wagler, 1832) – Cuba

The list of subspecies formerly included S. m. lilianae and S. m. auropectoralis. These are now considered to be a separate species, the Chihuahuan meadowlark. The split was based on a study published in 2021 that showed that there were significant morphological, vocal and genomic differences between these two taxa and the other subspecies of the eastern meadowlark.[7][9][10]

Description

The adult eastern meadowlark measures from 19 to 28 cm (7.5 to 11.0 in) in length and spans 35–40 cm (14–16 in) across the wings.[11] Body mass ranges from 76 to 150 g (2.7 to 5.3 oz).[12][13] The extended wing bone measures 8.9–12.9 cm (3.5–5.1 in), the tail measures 5.3–8.6 cm (2.1–3.4 in), the culmen measures 2.8–3.7 cm (1.1–1.5 in) and the tarsus measures 3.6–4.7 cm (1.4–1.9 in). Females are smaller in all physical dimensions.[14] Adults have yellow underparts with a black "V" on the breast and white flanks with black streaks. The upperparts are mainly brown with black streaks. They have a long pointed bill; the head is striped with light brown and black.

The song of this bird is of pure, melancholy whistles, and thus simpler than the jumbled and flutey song of the western meadowlark; their ranges overlap across central North America. In the field, the song is often the easiest way to tell the two species apart, though plumage differences do exist, like tail pattern and malar coloration.

The pale Chihuahuan meadowlark of northern Mexico and the southwestern US is split off as a separate species.

Distribution and habitat

Their breeding habitat is grasslands and prairie, also pastures and hay fields. This species is a permanent resident throughout much of its range, though most northern birds migrate southwards in winter.[15] In 1993 this species was first recorded in El Salvador, and the discovery of a breeding pair in 2004 confirmed that the species is a resident there.[16]

Behavior and ecology

Breeding

Nesting occurs throughout the summer months. The nest is also on the ground, covered with a roof woven from grasses. There may be more than one nesting female in a male's territory. Nests are placed on the ground in depressions 1 to 3 inches deep, such as in the hoofprints of cattle, in pastures, meadows, hay fields, and on the edges of marshes. The nests are made of dried grass and plant stems, and are lined with grass lespedezas, pine needles, or horse hair.[17]

The Cuban subspecies S. m. hippocrepis (Wagler, 1832) is small and more streaked below, and may be a separate species

Food and feeding

These birds forage on the ground or in low vegetation, sometimes probing with the bill. They mainly eat arthropods, but also seeds and berries. In winter, they often feed in flocks. About three-quarters of the eastern meadowlark's diet is from animal sources like beetles, grasshoppers, and crickets. They also eat grain and seeds.[17]

Conservation status

The numbers of this species increased as forests were cleared in eastern North America. This species is ideally suited to farmland areas, especially where tall grasses are allowed to grow. Their numbers are now shrinking with a decline in suitable habitat.[18] On the other hand, its range is expanding in parts of Central America toward the Pacific (western) side of the continent, in agricultural-type areas.[16]

Eastern meadowlarks are species at risk in Nova Scotia and the subject of agricultural conservation program seeking to reduce mortality through modified practices.[19] Allowing marginal areas of fields on farms to seed with grass can provide nesting habitat for meadowlarks and all grassland birds. Delaying hay harvest can also improve survival, giving young meadowlarks a chance of fledging [20]

Gallery

References

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2020). "Sturnella magna". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T22735434A179984605. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22735434A179984605.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 167.
  3. ^ Catesby, Mark (1729–1732). The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands (in English and French). Vol. 1. London: W. Innys and R. Manby. p. 33, Plate 33.
  4. ^ Committee on Classification and Nomenclature (1931). Check-list of North American Birds (4th ed.). Lancaster, Pennsylvania: American Ornithologist's Union. p. 301.
  5. ^ Paynter, Raymond A. Jr, ed. (1968). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 14. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 177.
  6. ^ Vieillot, Louis Jean Pierre (1816). Analyse d'une Nouvelle Ornithologie Élémentaire (in French). Paris: Deterville/self. p. 34.
  7. ^ a b c Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (August 2022). "Oropendolas, orioles, blackbirds". IOC World Bird List Version 12.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
  8. ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 368. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  9. ^ Beam, J.K.; Funk, E.R.; Taylor, S.A. (2021). "Genomic and acoustic differences separate Lilian's Meadowlark (Sturnella magna lilianae) from Eastern (S. magna) and Western (S. neglecta) meadowlarks". Ornithology. 138 (2): ukab004. doi:10.1093/ornithology/ukab004.
  10. ^ Chesser, R.T.; Billerman, S.M.; Burns, K.J.; Cicero, C.; Dunn, J.L.; Hernández-Baños, B.E.; Jiménez, R.A.; Kratter, A.W.; Mason, N.A.; Rasmussen, P.C.; Remsen, J.V.J.; Stotz, D.F.; Winker, K. (2022). "Sixty-third supplement to the American Ornithological Society's Check-list of North American Birds". Ornithology. 139 (3): ukac020. doi:10.1093/ornithology/ukac020.
  11. ^ "FieldGuides: Species Detail". eNature. Retrieved 2013-04-01.
  12. ^ CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), ISBN 978-0849342585.
  13. ^ "Eastern Meadowlark, Life History, All About Birds – Cornell Lab of Ornithology". Allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2013-04-01.
  14. ^ Jaramillo, Alvaro and Burke, Peter (1999) New World Blackbirds: The Icterids, Christopher Helm Publishing, ISBN 978-0713643336
  15. ^ Henninger, W.F. (1906). "A preliminary list of the birds of Seneca County, Ohio" (PDF). Wilson Bulletin. 18 (2): 47–60.
  16. ^ a b Herrera, Néstor; Rivera, Roberto; Ibarra Portillo, Ricardo & Rodríguez, Wilfredo (2006): Nuevos registros para la avifauna de El Salvador. ["New records for the avifauna of El Salvador"]. Boletín de la Sociedad Antioqueña de Ornitología 16 (2): 1–19. [Spanish with English abstract] PDF fulltext
  17. ^ a b Terres, John K. (1980). The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 941.
  18. ^ "All About Birds: Eastern Meadowlark". Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. Retrieved 2008-08-13.
  19. ^ "Eastern Meadowlark - Biodiversity Landowner Guide". Archived from the original on 2015-07-17. Retrieved 2015-07-16.
  20. ^ "Delay Haying - Biodiversity Landowner Guide". Archived from the original on 2015-07-17. Retrieved 2015-07-16.

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Eastern meadowlark: Brief Summary

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The eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna) is a medium-sized blackbird (family: Icteridae), very similar in appearance to sister species western meadowlark. It occurs from eastern North America to northern South America, where it is also most widespread in the east. The Chihuahuan meadowlark was formerly considered to be conspecific with the eastern meadowlark.

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