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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 10.6 years (wild)
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Associations

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White-throated dipper nests are vulnerable, so they are positioned in hard to reach places like rock faces, under cliffs or overhangs, and on bridge supports. Rats, jackdaws, crows, and mustelids all raid dipper nests. Unmated dippers may also kill young in order to gain access to a mate.

Known Predators:

  • rats (Rattus)
  • jackdaws (Corvus monedula)
  • carrion crows (Corvus corone)
  • mustelids (Mustelidae)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Morphology

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White-throated dippers are small, round birds with short, pointed beaks and stubby, blunt tails. Most of the body is dark brown, almost black, and the feathers on their backs have pale edges, producing a scalloped effect. They have white bibs running from below the beak to the middle of the chest. The bibs have clear boundaries in adults, but in juveniles, the edges blur into the rest of the brown on the body. In adults, the feathers caudoventral to the bib often appear reddish, as do the feathers on their heads, but their heads are darker and browner. White-throated dippers have special white eyelids which they use to protect their eyes while foraging underwater. Their legs and feet are black and thin, with three toes forward and one backward, like most passerines. Females are smaller than males.

Basal metabolic rates were studied in correlation with dominance. It was found that more dominant animals have high BMRs. Males generally have BMRs between 49 and 57 J/g/h, and females have BMRs between 52 and 64 J/g/h.

Average mass: 64 g.

Average length: 18 cm.

Average wingspan: 28 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Life Expectancy

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Many studies have shown that white-throated dippers are excellent bio-indicators, suggesting their lifespans can be affected by pollution. They typically live 3 years. The oldest bird recorded in the UK was 8 years, 4 months, though in Finland another bird reached the age of 10 years, 7 months. These ages were determined through bird banding.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
88 (high) months.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
3 years.

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Habitat

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White-throated dippers live near fast flowing rivers or streams in temperate and subarctic regions of Europe and Asia. They prefer cold climates and mountains, including rocky places like cliffs and peaks. They are also found near waterfalls and lakes.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial ; freshwater

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; mountains

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams

Other Habitat Features: riparian

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Distribution

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White-throated dippers are found throughout the Palearctic. There are ten subspecies in the western Palearctic and three in the eastern Palearctic. They are relatively sedentary, and their lack of dispersal may contribute to the accumulation of local variation. White-throated dippers are always found near fast flowing rivers and streams, most often in mountains. Population estimates are from 330,000 to 660,000 individuals and the range is massive.

White-throated dippers are found in the following countries: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bhutan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Iran, Islamic Republic of Iraq, Ireland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Myanmar, Nepal, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Uzbekistan. White-throated dippers have been extirpated from Cyprus and vagrants have been seen in the Faroe Islands, Malta, and Tunisia.

Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native )

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Untitled

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Cinclus cinclus comes from the Greek word kinklos, which means "small." In Britain, these dippers also called "water ousels." The common name which probably contains the most Z's comes from Poland: "pluszcz zwyczajny."

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Behavior

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White-throated dippers communicate with songs and calls. Physical contact, like pushing, is an effective way to establish dominance between two birds.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Conservation Status

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Population trends are difficult to determine for this species, but they appear to be relatively stable. They are listed as Least Concern by the IUCN red list.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Benefits

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There are no known adverse effects of white-throated dippers on humans.

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Benefits

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Cinclus cinclus is a valuable bio-indicator species in several countries. The sedentary lifestyle of white-throated dippers makes them indicators of local habitat problems. There is a high correlation between their presence or absence in an aquatic system and the level of pollution present. In a study done in Italy, white-throated dippers were present in 93.3% of unpolluted streams and absent from 93.7% of the polluted ones. They are also useful because they are predators, so their absence or lack of health may indicate a cumulation of negative factors in an ecosystem. Coniferous forests decrease the pH of streams and overly acidic conditions can be detected through breeding success of dipper pairs in a particular area. Many of their prey items have difficulty living under acidic conditions, so poor breeding and low foraging success by dippers can indicate too much coniferous reforestation is occurring upstream.

Positive Impacts: research and education

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Associations

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Cinclus cinclus is a valuable bio-indicator species in several countries. Its sedentary lifestyle allows it to indicate problems in specific areas, something a migratory species could not do as well. They also show high correlations between their presence/absence in a place and its level of pollution. In a study done in Italy, dippers were present in 93.3% of unpolluted streams and absent from 93.7% of the polluted ones. They are also useful because they are predators, so their absence or lack of health may indicate a cumulation of negative factors in an ecosystem. Coniferous foresting decreases the pH of streams, and overly acidic conditions can be detected by the breeding success of dipper pairs in a particular area. Many of their prey items have difficulty living under acidic conditions, so poor breeding and low foraging success by dippers can indicate too much foresting is occurring upstream.

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Trophic Strategy

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White-throated dipper forage by walking underwater, rather than swimming like other water birds. They use their wings to stabilize themselves as water flows over them. Once they capture their prey, they surface and eat while their heads are out of the water. Occasionally they capture food outside of the water, but this appears to opportunistic rather than intentional foraging. White-throated dippers eat mostly larvae of aquatic insects, like mayflies (Ephemeroptera), caddisflies (Hydropsychidae), stoneflies (Plecoptera), and blackflies (Simuliidae). They also eat small fish, like sculpins (Cottidae), when the season is right. Their specific diet changes as they age. Nestlings have a preference for caddisfly larvae (Hydropsychidae). Juveniles begin foraging in shallow water, eating mostly blackfly larvae (Simuliidae). As they mature into adults, they become more adept at gripping the rocks and maneuvering in deeper water, so they begin diving and eating larger prey. Adults prefer mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and stoneflies (Plecoptera), and only rarely do they forage in shallow water and pick off blackfly larvae from the rocks found there. Adults also eat more prey that requires post-capture handling, like caddisfly larvae, while juveniles prefer food that is easier to eat.

Animal Foods: fish; insects

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Reproduction

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White-throated dippers are usually monogamous, though a percentage (8 to 50%) of males are polygynous. Infanticide is known to occur; unmated birds will attack and kill the eggs or young of a pair in order to gain copulations with the opposite sex parent.

Mating System: monogamous ; polygynous

When white-throated dippers reach one year old they begin to reproduce. Males defend the pair's territory. Nests are built strategically to impair predator access, but otherwise females do not help with nest defense. Females generally lay eggs in April. Eggs are laid at a rate of one per day until the clutch reaches 4 to 5 eggs. Hatching occurs 15 to 16 days later. The young are tended through the summer. Eggs are about 26 mm long and 19 mm wide and weigh about 4.6 g, of which 5% is the shell. In highly productive breeding territories, second clutches may be laid up to 18% of the time. Territories with acidic water result in second clutch attempts in only 1.9% of nests (Vickery, 1992). Young are born in an altricial state and with some downy feathers. When they are ten days old, they weigh about 46 grams. Pairs usually raise about four chicks per year to an age of ten days.

Breeding interval: White-throated dipper pairs raise one or two clutches per season.

Breeding season: White-throated dippers lay their first clutches in early to mid March.

Average eggs per season: 4-5.

Range time to hatching: 15 to 16 days.

Range fledging age: 18 to 23 days.

Range time to independence: 9.5 to 15 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Soon after fledging, the young begin learning to forage. Adults continue to feed them while they are learning. Young begin foraging in shallow areas and catch larvae instead of the larger prey their parents retrieve while diving. The amount of food provided by parents was found to have little effect on age of independence. However, young which begged more spent less time learning to forage, which negatively impacted their ability to become independent. Because foraging ability plays such a large role in independence, birds raised along the same river and even within the same clutch can vary widely in time to independence. The fastest learners leave their parents after 9.5 days, birds that take more time learning to forage become independent after about 15 days.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Male); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

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Dakota, A. 2009. "Cinclus cinclus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cinclus_cinclus.html
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Biology

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The dipper has evolved amazing methods of hunting: it swims underwater using its wings, can walk along the bottom with the wings held out to prevent it bobbing to the surface, and can swim on the surface, making dives into the water (5) (2). They feed on a wide range of aquatic invertebrates and fish (6). Dippers hunt by sight, and have a third white eye-lid known as a nictitating membrane, which protects the eye when they are submerged (5). Dippers breed early in the year, and will often have laid eggs before the end of February (6). The domed nest is constructed from straw and moss, and is typically built in a crevice below a bridge, behind a waterfall or in a stone wall (2). Four or five eggs are laid and incubated for around 16 days. The young will have fledged after 20-24 days, and the maximum lifespan of this bird is around 8 years (3).
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Conservation

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Conservation action has not been targeted at this common species.
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Description

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The dipper is a dumpy aquatic bird with a short tail (3). Adults have dark sooty-black plumage with a prominent bright white bib, and the plumage below the bib and on the head is reddish-brown (2). Juveniles are greyish in colour (5). The common name 'dipper' refers to this bird's habit of 'curtseying' when perched (2). The call is a penetrating 'zits' and the song is a slow, soft warbling (5) (2).
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Habitat

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Breeds along fast-flowing streams and rivers, typically in upland areas where there are plenty of exposed stones on which they can perch (3) (2). They typically nest in crevices beneath bridges and in walls (5). In winter, dippers tend to stay in their breeding areas, but in very harsh conditions they may move to estuaries and coastal areas (6).
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Range

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The race that occurs in Britain, gularis, is found throughout most of Wales and northern Britain, but has a patchy distribution in south-west England (6). The Irish race, hibernicus is widespread in Ireland with the exception of central areas (6). Elsewhere, the dipper is found in much of Europe, extending east to Russia and the Urals and south to North Africa (7).
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Status

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Listed as a Species of Conservation Concern by the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, but not a priority species. Included in the Birds of Conservation Concern Green List (low conservation concern) (4).
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Threats

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This species is not threatened at present.
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White-throated dipper

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The white-throated dipper (Cinclus cinclus), also known as the European dipper or just dipper, is an aquatic passerine bird found in Europe, Middle East, Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent. The species is divided into several subspecies, based primarily on colour differences, particularly of the pectoral band. The white-throated dipper is Norway's national bird.[2][3]

Taxonomy and systematics

The white-throated dipper was described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Sturnus cinclus.[4] The current genus Cinclus was introduced by the German naturalist Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen in 1797.[5] The name cinclus is from the Ancient Greek word kinklos that was used to describe small tail-wagging birds that resided near water.[6] Of the five species now placed in the genus, a molecular genetic study has shown that the white-throated dipper is most closely related to the other Eurasian species, the brown dipper (Cinclus pallasii).[7]

There are 14 subspecies of which one is now extinct (with ):[8]

  • C. c. hibernicus Hartert, 1910 – Irish dipper[9] – Ireland and west Scotland
  • C. c. gularis (Latham, 1801) – British dipper[10] – Scotland (except west), north, central and west England and Wales
  • C. c. cinclus (Linnaeus, 1758) – Northern white-throated dipper[11] – north Europe, west and central France and north Spain, Corsica and Sardinia
  • C. c. aquaticus (Bechstein, 1797) – Central European dipper[12] – central and south Europe
  • C. c. olympicus Madarász, 1903 – Cyprus
  • C. c. minor Tristram, 1870 – northwest Africa
  • C. c. rufiventris Tristram, 1885 – west Syria and Lebanon
  • C. c. uralensis Serebrovski, 1927 – Ural Mountains
  • C. c. caucasicus Madarász, 1903 – Turkey to the Caucasus, north Iran and north Iraq
  • C. c. persicus Witherby, 1906 – southwest Iran
  • C. c. leucogaster Bonaparte, 1850 – south-central Russia, northwest China south to Afghanistan and north Pakistan
  • C. c. baicalensis Dresser, 1892 – south-central and southeast Siberia
  • C. c. cashmeriensis Gould, 1860 – west and central Himalayas
  • C. c. przewalskii Bianchi, 1905 – east Himalayas, south Tibet and west China

Description

The white-throated dipper is about 18 centimetres (7.1 in) long, rotund and short tailed.[13] The head of the adult (gularis and aquaticus) is brown, the back slate-grey mottled with black, looking black from a distance, and the wings and tail are brown. The throat and upper breast are white, followed by a band of warm chestnut which merges into black on the belly and flanks. The bill is almost black, the legs and irides brown. C. c. cinclus has a black belly band. The young are greyish brown and have no chestnut band.

Voice

The male has a sweet wren-like song. During courtship the male sings whilst he runs and postures, exhibiting his snowy breast, and when displaying he will take long and high flights, like those of the common kingfisher, accompanied by sharp metallic calls clink, clink, different from the normal zil.

Behaviour and ecology

The white-throated dipper is closely associated with swiftly running rivers and streams or the lakes into which these fall. It often perches bobbing spasmodically with its short tail uplifted on the rocks round which the water swirls and tumbles.

It acquired its name from these sudden dips, not from its diving habit, though it dives as well as walks into the water.

It flies rapidly and straight, its short wings whirring swiftly and without pauses or glides, calling a shrill zil, zil, zil. It will then either drop on the water and dive or plunge in with a small splash.

From a perch it will walk into the water and deliberately submerge, but there is no truth in the assertion that it can defy the laws of specific gravity and walk along the bottom. Undoubtedly when entering the water it grips with its strong feet, but the method of progression beneath the surface is by swimming, using the wings effectively for flying under water. It holds itself down by muscular exertion, with its head well down and its body oblique, its course beneath the surface often revealed by a line of rising bubbles.

In this way it secures its food, usually aquatic invertebrates including caddis worms and other aquatic insect larvae, beetles, Limnaea, Ancylus and other freshwater molluscs, and also fish and small amphibians. A favourite food is the small crustacean Gammarus, an amphipod shrimp. It also walks and runs on the banks and rocks seeking terrestrial invertebrates. Dippers may be preyed on by predatory fish such as brown trout although only one case has been recorded for this species unlike in American dipper.[14]

The winter habits of the dipper vary considerably and apparently individually. When the swift hill streams are frozen it is forced to descend to the lowlands and even visit the coasts, but some will remain if there is any open water.

Breeding

Cinclus cinclus - MHNT

The white-throated dippers first breed when they are one year old. They are monogamous and defend a territory. The nest is almost invariably built either very near or above water. It is often placed on a rocky ledge or in a cavity. Man-made structures such as bridges are also used. The nest consists of a dome shaped structure made of moss, grass stems and leaves with a side entrance within which is an inner cup made of stems, rootlets and hair. Both sexes build the main larger structure but the female builds the inner cup. The eggs are laid daily. The clutch can contain from 1-8 eggs but usually 4–5. The eggs are smooth and glossy white and are 26 mm × 18.7 mm (1.02 in × 0.74 in) with a calculated weight of 4.6 g (0.16 oz). They are incubated by the female beginning after the last or sometimes the penultimate egg has been laid.[15] The male will bring food to the incubating female.[16] The eggs hatch after around 16 days and then both parents feed the altricial and nidicolous nestlings.[15] For the first 12–13 days they are brooded by the female. Both parents remove the faecal sacs for the first 9 days.[16] The chicks fledge at around 22 days of age but the parents continue to feed their young for another week but feeding can continue for 18 days. If the female has started a second clutch then only the male parent feeds the fledglings.[15] One or two broods are reared, usually in the same nest. When disturbed, the young that hardly feathered will at once drop into the water and dive.

The maximum recorded age of a white-throated dipper from ring-recovery data is 10 years and 7 months for a bird ringed in Finland.[17] Within the United Kingdom and Ireland the maximum age is 8 years and 9 months for a bird ringed and recovered in County Laois, Ireland.[18]

Dippers and humans

The first detailed description of the white-throated dipper, dating from c.1183, is that of Gerald of Wales (Giraldus Cambrensis), the twelfth-century cleric, historian and traveller, in his book Topographia Hibernica, an account of his travels through Ireland in 1183–86.[19] Gerald, a keen observer of wildlife, describes the dipper accurately, but with his notorious tendency to believe anything he was told, which so often detracts from the value of his work,[20] states that it was an aberrant variety of the common kingfisher. The true kingfisher, according to Gerald, did not occur in Ireland in the 1180s, although it was widespread there by the eighteenth century.[21]

Gallery

References

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2018). "Cinclus cinclus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22708156A131946814. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22708156A131946814.en. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  2. ^ "Norges nasjonalfugl fossekallen" (in Norwegian). Norsk Rikskringkasting AS. 22 April 2009. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
  3. ^ "Norway's National Bird: The White-throated Dipper - The Norway Guide". thenorwayguide.com. 2022-04-23. Retrieved 2022-11-10.
  4. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, Volume 1 (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae:Laurentii Salvii. p. 168.
  5. ^ Borkhausen (1797). Deutsche Fauna, oder, Kurzgefasste Naturgeschichte der Thiere Deutschlands. Erster Theil, Saugthiere und Vögel (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Varrentrapp und Wenner. p. 300.
  6. ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  7. ^ Voelker, Gary (2002). "Molecular phylogenetics and the historical biogeography of dippers (Cinclus)". Ibis. 144 (4): 577–584. doi:10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00084.x.
  8. ^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2019). "Dippers, leafbirds, flowerpeckers, sunbirds". World Bird List Version 9.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
  9. ^ "Cinclus cinclus hibernicus (Irish dipper) - Zootierliste". zootierliste.de/en. Retrieved 2022-01-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  10. ^ "Cinclus cinclus gularis (British dipper) - Zootierliste". zootierliste.de/en. Retrieved 2022-01-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  11. ^ "Cinclus cinclus cinclus (Northern white-throated dipper) - Zootierliste". zootierliste.de/en. Retrieved 2022-01-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  12. ^ "Cinclus cinclus aquaticus (Central European dipper) - Zootierliste". zootierliste.de/en. Retrieved 2022-01-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  13. ^ Cramp 1988, p. 510.
  14. ^ Hegelbach, Johann (2014). "Bachforelle Salmo trutta fario erbeutet junge Wasseramsel Cinclus cinclus" (PDF). Der Ornithologische Beobachter (in German). 111 (2): 121–124.
  15. ^ a b c Cramp 1988, p. 521.
  16. ^ a b Cramp 1988, p. 519.
  17. ^ "European Longevity Records". Euring. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
  18. ^ "Longevity records for Britain & Ireland in 2017". British Trust for Ornithology. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
  19. ^ Moriarty, Christopher Down the Dodder Wolfhound Press Dublin 1991 pp.114-5
  20. ^ D'Arcy, Gordon Ireland's Lost Birds Four Courts Press Dublin 1999 p.19
  21. ^ Moriarty p.115
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White-throated dipper: Brief Summary

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The white-throated dipper (Cinclus cinclus), also known as the European dipper or just dipper, is an aquatic passerine bird found in Europe, Middle East, Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent. The species is divided into several subspecies, based primarily on colour differences, particularly of the pectoral band. The white-throated dipper is Norway's national bird.

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