Zimmerman and Heatwole (1990) found evidence of photoreceptors in the tail of Aipysurus laevis and suggested that light sensitivity of the tail, combined with the more familiar light sensitivity of the eyes at the front end, helps the snake know when it is adequately concealed.
As is the case for many snakes, the growth rate of sexually mature olive sea snakes is markedly slower than for immature individuals (Burns and Heatwole 2000). Males become sexually mature at about 3 years of age while females mature at 4-5 years (Burns and Heatwole 2000).
The olive sea snake (Aipysurus laevis) is the most common sea snake on the reefs of eastern Australia (Burns and Heatwole 1998). This species is widely distributed in Australasian waters, occurring on the coral reefs of Australia from Brisbane on the east coast all the way around to Shark Bay on the west coast, as well as New Guinea, and the Coral Sea.
Burns and Heatwole (1998) estimated the home range of Aipysurus laevis on the Great Barrier Reef to be around 1500 m2 (relatively low for snakes in general) and the maximum overlap of neighboring home ranges in their study was nearly 90%. When not foraging or surfacing to breathe, snakes hide under any convenient cover rather than returning repeatedly to the same shelter. Foraging is concentrated at the interface of coral or rock with sand and occurs both during the day and at night.
Olive sea snakes live to about 15 years or older (Burns and Heatwole 2000).
Aipysurus laevis is the largest member of its genus. It is typically about a meter in length, although it can exceed two meters. Its fangs may be 7 mm long. The tails of sea snakes are flat and paddle-like. It is distinguished from congeners by the combination of having 21 or 23 mid-body scale rows, fewer than 180 ventral scales, at least the parietal shields on the head fragmented, and ventral scales which are not (or scarcely) notched on the rear edge (Gopalakrishnakone 1994).
Very small olive sea snakes are infrequently encountered. This may be due to a combination of factors, possibly including low reproduction rate, high juvenile mortality, and biased sampling (Burns 1984, cited in Heatwole 1997).
Despite possessing a potent venom, olive sea snakes are nevertheless subject to predation, notably by sharks and ospreys (Heatwole 1975, cited in Zimmerman and Heatwole 1990).
From Burns 1985 (as cited in Heatwole 1997): In the Great Barrier Reef, olive sea snakes ovulate in the southern spring (October). Embryonic development takes about 6 months and young are born in the southern autumn (April). Individual females probably breed only every other year. Olive sea snakes bear live young underwater. Average brood size is just 2.6.
The olive tree snake (Aipysurus laevis) is generally docile and usually appears merely curious if approached by a human diver. During the breeding season (May-July), however, attacks on humans are more frequent (Heatwole 1975, cited in Gopalakrishnakone 1994). A full neoprene wetsuit, however, should offer adequate protection from all but the largest individuals (Heatwole 1975, cited in Gopalakrishnakone 1994).
The olive sea snake (Aipysurus laevis) is a generalized predator, with a known diet including representatives of at at least 12 families of fishes, as well as fish eggs and shrimp, crabs, and molluscs (Voris and Voris 1983). Fish species vary substantially in their sensitivity to olive sea snake venom. Patterns of sensitivity in experiments with several eel species (potential prey) led Heatwole and Poran (1995) to argue that potential prey species most likely to encounter olive sea snakes are actually less vulnerable to olive sea snake predation. They suggest that species that are sympatric (i.e., overlapping in geographic range), syntopic (i.e., overlapping in habitat within that geographic range), and most likely to interact with the olive sea snake have evolved some resistance to olive sea snake venom.
Aipysurus laevis is a species of venomous sea snake found in the Indo-Pacific. Its common names include golden sea snake,[3] olive sea snake, and olive-brown sea snake.[1]
The olive sea snake swims using a paddle-like tail. It has brownish and purple scales along the top of its body whilst its underside is a white color.[4] It can grow up to a meter in length, and in some cases up to two meters.[5] While it can be aggressive towards prey, attacks on divers or larger animals are usually rare, though if provoked it will engage the attacker.[4] The snake's main predators are sharks and ospreys.[5]
It is a common, widespread species that lives on coral reefs, including the Great Barrier Reef.[1] It can also be found in the north-eastern Pacific Ocean.[6] The creature hides in small coves or protective coral areas if not hunting or surfacing to breathe.[4] It feeds on crustaceans, fish, and fish eggs.[1] It uses venom to incapacitate its prey. This snake in particular has venom that contains enzymes which break down the prey from within for easier digestion. The venom also affects both the muscles and nerves of the prey and drop-for-drop it is the most toxic sea snake venom.[6] The snake usually hunts in coral reef areas, searching for food by poking its head into crevices. The creature usually stays away from open water as a hunting ground.[7]
Aipysurus laevis has been found to have photoreceptors in the skin of its tail, allowing it to detect light and presumably ensuring it is completely hidden, including its tail, inside coral holes during the day. While other species have not been tested, A. laevis possibly is not unique among sea snakes in this respect. Dermal light sensitivity is found in all the major animal phyla.[8]
Males can reach sexual maturity in their third year, while females do not until their fourth or fifth year.[6] Courtship usually involves a group of males vying for one female, which occurs in open water. At times, divers are approached by male sea snakes, possibly due to male sea snakes mistaking divers for female sea snakes.[9]
Fertilization is internal and gestation lasts for about nine months. Females can give birth up to five young at a time.[6] In rare cases there can be ten or eleven young at once.[7] Life expectancy of the snake is about fifteen years, sometimes a bit longer.[5]
While there are not many threats to the Aipysurus laevis, man-made dangers do exist for it. Prawn trawls are one of the greatest threats for the creature, up to 50% of olive sea snakes caught in trawls are killed, while the ones that survive usually suffer injuries. Death from prawn trawls often comes either from drowning or being crushed.[7]
A species was first described by Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1804, assigning it to a new genus Aipysurus.[2] A name published by John Edward Gray, Aipysurus jukesii, is regarded as a synonym for this species.[10]
Currently, two subspecies are recognized, including the nominotypical subspecies described here.[11]
Subspecies[11] Authority[11] Common name[3] Geographic range A. l. laevis Lacépède, 1804 olive sea snake A. l. pooleorum L.A. Smith, 1974 Shark Bay sea snakeThe subspecies A. l. pooleorum has been elevated to full species status as A. pooleorum.[12]
Aipysurus derives from the Greek aipys "high and steep" and oura "tail";[13] the term loosely meaning "high tail" was coined to denote "the laterally compressed tail that is higher than the depth of the body".[14] Laevis, a variant form of Latin levis, means "smooth".[15] The specific name, pooleorum (masculine, genitive plural), is in honor of Australian fishermen "W. and W. Poole" who collected the holotype.[16]
Aipysurus laevis is a species of venomous sea snake found in the Indo-Pacific. Its common names include golden sea snake, olive sea snake, and olive-brown sea snake.
The olive sea snake swims using a paddle-like tail. It has brownish and purple scales along the top of its body whilst its underside is a white color. It can grow up to a meter in length, and in some cases up to two meters. While it can be aggressive towards prey, attacks on divers or larger animals are usually rare, though if provoked it will engage the attacker. The snake's main predators are sharks and ospreys.
It is a common, widespread species that lives on coral reefs, including the Great Barrier Reef. It can also be found in the north-eastern Pacific Ocean. The creature hides in small coves or protective coral areas if not hunting or surfacing to breathe. It feeds on crustaceans, fish, and fish eggs. It uses venom to incapacitate its prey. This snake in particular has venom that contains enzymes which break down the prey from within for easier digestion. The venom also affects both the muscles and nerves of the prey and drop-for-drop it is the most toxic sea snake venom. The snake usually hunts in coral reef areas, searching for food by poking its head into crevices. The creature usually stays away from open water as a hunting ground.
Aipysurus laevis has been found to have photoreceptors in the skin of its tail, allowing it to detect light and presumably ensuring it is completely hidden, including its tail, inside coral holes during the day. While other species have not been tested, A. laevis possibly is not unique among sea snakes in this respect. Dermal light sensitivity is found in all the major animal phyla.
Males can reach sexual maturity in their third year, while females do not until their fourth or fifth year. Courtship usually involves a group of males vying for one female, which occurs in open water. At times, divers are approached by male sea snakes, possibly due to male sea snakes mistaking divers for female sea snakes.
Fertilization is internal and gestation lasts for about nine months. Females can give birth up to five young at a time. In rare cases there can be ten or eleven young at once. Life expectancy of the snake is about fifteen years, sometimes a bit longer.
While there are not many threats to the Aipysurus laevis, man-made dangers do exist for it. Prawn trawls are one of the greatest threats for the creature, up to 50% of olive sea snakes caught in trawls are killed, while the ones that survive usually suffer injuries. Death from prawn trawls often comes either from drowning or being crushed.
