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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Observations: Very little is known about the longevity of sunfishes, though given their their large body size and reproductive output it is possibly they are long-lived. They can lay 300,000,000 eggs. Anecdotes suggest they can live more than 10 years in captivity, but possibly much longer (http://www.oceansunfish.org/).
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Associations

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Ocean sunfish are often preyed upon by large sharks and California sea lions (Cartamil and Lowe, 2004). They may dive below the thermocline to avoid predators (Cartamil and Lowe, 2004). Ocean sunfish are also occassionally hunted by humans.

Known Predators:

  • large sharks Selachimorpha
  • California sea lions Zalophus californianus
  • humans Homo sapiens
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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Morphology

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Ocean sunfish have a large body that is compressed and ovular. They are the largest bony fish, measuring up to 3.1 m in length, 4.26 m in height, and weighing up to 2235 kg (Hutchins, 2004; Humann and Deloach, 2002; Houghton et al., 2006). They are scale-less, and have a thick, rubbery skin and irregular patches of tubercles over their body (Hutchins, 2004; Wheeler, 1969; Smith, 1965). Notably, adult ocean sunfish do not have a caudal fin or caudal peduncle. They instead have a clavus, which is a truncated tail, used more like a rudder than for propulsion. The clavus reaches from the rear edge of the dorsal fin to the rear edge of the anal fin (Wheeler, 1969; Hutchins, 2004; Linnaeus, 1758). The dorsal and anal fins of ocean sunfish are tall, and their small pectoral fins point toward the dorsal fin (Hutchins, 2004). The dorsal fin has 15 to 18 soft rays, and the anal fin has 14 to 17 soft rays (Hutchins, 2004). They also have a small mouth with fused teeth that form a beak-like structure (Hutchins, 2004).

Ocean sunfish vary in coloration, though the head, back, tips of the anal and dorsal fins, and clavus are generally a mixture of dark grey-brown and dark silvery grey (Hutchins, 2004; Humann and Deloach, 2002; Ayling and Collins, 1982). They have a white belly and sometimes have white splotches on their fins and dorsal side (Ayling and Collins, 1982; Humann and Deloach, 2002). Adult ocean fish do not possess a lateral line, and only one gill opening is visible on each side, which is located near the base of the pectoral fins (Hutchins, 2004; Smith and Heemstra, 1986).

Range mass: 2235 (high) kg.

Range length: 3.1 (high) m.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Life Expectancy

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The lifespan of ocean sunfish is currently unknown. A member of the same family, sharptail mola are estimated to have a lifespan of 82 to 105 years (Liu et al., 2009).

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Habitat

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Adult ocean sunfish are found in temperate and tropical oceans across the globe. They prefer the open ocean but occasionally venture into kelp beds and deep coral reefs in order to be cleaned of parasites by fishes such as wrasses (Labroides dimidiatus and Thalasoma lunare) and Emperor Angelfish (Hutchins, 2004; Humann and Deloach, 2002, Konow et al., 2006).

Habitat Regions: saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: pelagic

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Distribution

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Ocean sunfish, Mola mola, are found in the temperate and tropical regions of the Mediterranean, Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans (Wheeler, 1969; Sims and Southall, 2002; Houghton et al., 2006). They are commonly observed off the coast of Southern California, Indonesia, the British Isles, the Northern and Southern Isles of New Zealand, the southern coasts of Africa, and in the Mediterranean and occasionally in the North Sea (Muus, 1964; Ayling and Cox, 1982; Smith, 1965; Cartamil and Lowe, 2004; Houghton et al., 2006; Sims and Southall, 2002; Konow et al., 2006). Most sightings in the British Isles and North Sea occur during the summer months, particularly June and July, when the waters are between 13 and 17˚C (Sims and Southall, 2002). Ocean sunfish are thought to migrate to higher latitudes during the spring and summer months to pursue their migrating zooplankton prey (Liu et al., 2009).

Biogeographic Regions: indian ocean (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native ); mediterranean sea (Native )

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Untitled

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Ocean sunfish, Mola mola, were originally described as Tetraodon mola by Linnaeus in his book, Systema Naturae 10th edition. Mola is the Latin word for millstone (Smith and Heemstra, 1986).

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Behavior

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Little is known regarding methods of communication and perception of ocean sunfish.

Perception Channels: tactile ; chemical

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Conservation Status

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Ocean sunfish have not been evaluated by the IUCN, US Federal List, or CITES. They are often caught as bycatch by drift gillnet fisheries. In southern California, ocean sunfish compromised 29% of the catch in drift gillnet fisheries targeting swordfish (Cartamil and Lowe, 2004). In the Mediterranean between 1992 and 1994, ocean sunfish had a bycatch rate of 70 to 93%. In South Africa, the bycatch rate of ocean sunfish is estimated at 17% (Liu et al., 2009).

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Life Cycle

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Ocean sunfish have two larval stages. Larvae in the first tetradon-like stage are round and spines protrude from the edges of their body. They have a well-developed tail and caudal fin (Bass et al., 2005; Muus, 1964) During the second larval stage, the tail is completely absorbed and spines disappear (Bass et al., 2005). Larvae generally measure about 0.25 cm in length (Pope et al., 2010). Juvenile ocean sunfish grow at an considerable rate, averaging 0.02 to 0.42 kg/day and sometimes reaching 0.82 kg/day (Pope et al., 2010).

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Benefits

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Ocean sunfish are often caught as bycatch in commercial fishing nets, which can be a great inconvenience (Liu et al., 2009).

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Benefits

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Ocean sunfish are considered a delicacy in some Asian countries. They are also used in traditional Chinese medicines (Humann and Deloach, 2002).

Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Associations

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Ocean sunfish are considered to have strategic top-down control of jellyfish populations. They may also have a direct influence on the incidence and occurrence of jellyfish blooms (Liu et al., 2009).

Ecosystem Impact: keystone species

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Trophic Strategy

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Ocean sunfish primarily feed on jellyfish and gelatinous zooplankton, such as ctenophores, salps, and medusae. They have also been known to eat soft bodied invertebrates, crustaceans, mollusks, seaweed, eel larvae, and even flounder (Wheeler, 1969). Ocean sunfish are thought to migrate to higher latitudes in response to zooplankton migrations during the spring and summer months (Liu et al., 2009). They may also migrate vertically during the day to prey upon jellyfish and zooplankton found below the thermocline (Cartamil and Lowe, 2004; Liu et al., 2009).

Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans; cnidarians; zooplankton

Plant Foods: macroalgae

Primary Diet: herbivore (Algivore); planktivore

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Reproduction

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Little is known about the mating systems of ocean fish, although they are thought to have paired courtship (Muus,1964; Hutchins, 2004). Some individuals are thought to spawn in the Sargasso Sea.

Little is known about the breeding behaviors of ocean sunfish. Off the coast of Japan, spawning is thought to occur between August and October (Nakatsubo et al., 2007). Female ocean sunfish can produce over 300 million eggs each breeding season, making them the most fecund extant vertebrate (Bass et al., 2005). Their eggs are very small, with an average diameter of 0.13 cm (Pope et al., 2010).

Range number of offspring: 300,000,000 (high) .

Little is known regarding parental investment of offspring in ocean sunfish.

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Griffin, B. 2011. "Mola mola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mola_mola.html
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Brandon Griffin, Louisiana State University
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Prosanta Chakrabarty, Louisiana State University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Brief Summary

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Sunfish have a bizarre appearance. The best way to describe them is with the term 'swimming head'. Every once in awhile, a sunfish is caught in the North Sea, or one is washed ashore. It is usually a small, young specimen weighing around 50 kilograms. Sunfish have a relatively long life expectancy and keep growing their entire life. There have been reports of sunfish 4 meters long and 2300 kilograms. Sunfish have two world records. They are the heaviest known bony fish and they lay the most eggs. They are even mentioned in the Guinness Book of World Records.
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Brief Summary

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The Ocean Sunfish or Mola (Mola mola) is the world's heaviest bony fish. The distinctive body shape is laterally compressed and appears bluntly terminated to the rear, as if the tail had been lopped off. Molas have a reduced skeleton, with fewer vertebrae than any other fish. Metamorphosis from larva to adult is remarkable in that, unlike most fish, Molas pass through two distinct larval phases—a typical Tetraodon pufferfish-like larval and another highly transformative stage resulting in the complete absorption of the tail (Fraser-Brunner 1951). Molas have been claimed to be the most fecund vertebrates known, with a single female reportedly producing several hundred million eggs at once (Schmidt 1921, cited in Pope et al. 2010).

Molas have a very broad global distribution, occurring in both temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. Due to their primarily pelagic (open water) distribution, studying their ecology and behavior is challenging. They are most easily observed basking at the surface, a behavior for which several functions have been proposed, including warming themselves after deep dives into cold water and presenting themselves to seabirds and other fishes that remove parasites (such as Pennella copepods) from their bodies (Abe et al. 2012; Pope et al. 2010 and references therein). Although Molas were long believed to be sluggish swimmers, drifting passively in ocean currents, based on investigations in recent years (e.g., Cartamil and Lowe 2004; Sims et al. 2009; Dewar et al. 2010) it is now clear that Molas do not necessarily travel with prevailing currents and instead appear to be relatively active predators that are capable of migrating at least moderate distances, perhaps in response to shifts in regional productivity and temperature. Gelatinous zooplankton (such as jellyfishes, salps, and pyrosomes) comprise a large fraction of the diet of these fish, although Syväranta et al. (2012) have used stable isotype analyses to argue that the extent of dependence of Molas on gelatinous zooplankton may be overstated, as was suggested by Pope et al. (2010) (but see Logan and Dodge 2013 and Harrod et al. 2013). Stable isotope studies of Molas in the Mediterranean Sea by Cardona et al. (2012) supported the assertion that gelatinous zooplankton are at least a major component of the diet. Hays et al. (2009) compared foraging depths for Molas and Leatherback Turtles (Dermochelys coriacea)--the heaviest bony fish and the heaviest sea turtle, both of which are believed to feed heavily on gelatinous zooplankton. They found that while Molas can feed from the surface to depths greater than 500 m, Leatherbacks are limited to relatively shallow waters (<200 m), presumably because of the constraint that they must return to the surface to breathe air.

Although Molas are caught and sold in only a few parts of the world, such as Japan and Taiwan, in recent years they have been taken incidentally in substantial numbers in many fisheries, including the swordfish drift gillnet fishery off California and Oregon (U.S.A.), the illegal Spanish driftnet swordfish fishery off the Gibraltar Straits in the Mediterranean, and the the tuna and swordfish longline fishery off the coast of South Africa (Dewar et al. 2010 and references therein).

The taxonomic treatment of fishes in the family Molidae has fluctuated considerably through time. Current molecular, morphological, and distributional data appear to support the recognition of at least two species in the genus Mola: M. mola and the far less familiar M. ramsayi (which is likely limited to the southern hemisphere), as well as possibly at least one more. Because of the unresolved taxonomic issues in the genus Mola, it is possible that some studies supposedly done on M. mola may actually apply to a different closely related species. Two additional species are included in the family Molidae, Masturus lanceolatus and Ranzania laevis. The Molidae are closely related to the Tetraodontidae (pufferfishes) and Diodontidae (porcupine fishes). (Bass et al. 2005; Yoshita et al. 2009; Pope et al. 2010 and references therein)

Pope et al. (2010) provide a wide-ranging and thorough review of the limited available data on the taxonomy, morphology, ecology, and conservation of Molas. The oceansunfish.org website is a rich source of information about molas.

(Bass et al. 2005 and references therein; Pope et al. 2010 and references therein)

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Ecology

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Sims et al. (2009) used a fast-acquisition global positioning system (Fastloc GPS) tag with remote data retrieval to track long-term movements of three Ocean Sunfish (Mola mola) captured and tagged off southern Portugal. This allowed tracking in near real time with position accuracy of <70 m. These fish are known to dive to depths of at least 472 m and can often remain at deep depths for long periods, only returning occasionally, and then often only briefly, to the surface. The system implemented permitted reception and transmission of location information whenever the fish came close to the surface.

According to Sims et al., their study represents the first demonstration of long-term (>90 days) GPS tracking of a large pelagic fish and shows the great potential for this technique, whereby GPS-quality location data are retrieved remotely via conventional Argos satellites. By freeing researchers from the restriction of working on estuarine or nearshore species in order to physically recover tags to download GPS acquisition data, this technique offers tremendous potential for tracking large pelagic fish species that surface relatively frequently. Although the high spatial accuracy of this technique for fish in open ocean habitats has practical applications for both fisheries and conservation, it will not be suitable for fish species that remain in deep water after tagging.

In the early part of the 20th Century, Ocean Sunfish were sometimes described as active swimmers, but in other cases described as sluggish, inefficient swimmers, passively carried by ocean currents. Modern tracking studies of these fish using attached acoustic transmitters, acceleration dataloggers, and satellite-linked archival transmitters have demonstrated that they are active swimmers both horizontally and vertically. Sims et al. (2009) found that the Ocean Sunfish they tracked covered around 10 to 20 km per day, a rate that is comparable to the movements of pelagic sharks. GPS track integration with current direction/strength maps showed individuals often headed into and across prevailing currents associated with mesoscale eddies. These data confirm that Ocean Sunfish are not passive drifters, but rather, are in fact active swimmers with movement rates within the range observed for other pelagic fishes. Search-like movements occurred over at least three distinct spatial scales. At fine scales, Ocean Sunfish spent longer in highly localised areas with faster, straighter excursions between them. These "stopovers" during long-distance movement appear consistent with finding and exploiting food patches.

Sims et al. (2009) suggest that there would be great value in pursuing long-term GPS tracking of other large pelagic fish species--such as tunas, billfish, and sharks--that surface relatively frequently and have high conservation priority in many ocean regions where a greater understanding of when and why they use certain habitats could enhance management.

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Morphology

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Dorsal spines (total): 0; Dorsal soft rays (total): 15 - 18; Analspines: 0; Analsoft rays: 14 - 17
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Rainer Froese
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Trophic Strategy

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The fish is found on slopes adjacent to deep water. The fish comes in for shelter and for seeking cleaner fishes. The fish is usually shy. However, it may become familiar with divers in some locations (Ref. 48637). The species often drifts at the surface while lying on its side. It swims upright and close to the surface. The dorsal fin often protruds above the water. The species has been filmed in 480 m depth with the help of a camera equipped with baits(Lis Maclaren, pers. Comm. 2005). The species eats fishes, mollusks, zooplankton, jellyfish, crustaceans and brittle stars (Refs. 4925, 48637). Contrary to reports of being an obligate feeder on gelatinous zooplankton, it has been reported, in fact, to display different feeding behaviors, feed on diverse food items, including filamentous brown algae from shallow water. Juveniles are likely to be benthos feeders. Feeding behavior includes accelerated movement towards slowly moving prey. Exhibits qualitative overlapping diet with Masturus lanceolatus (Ref. 119029). A live colony of the cirriped Lepas anatifera were found attached to the anterior portion of the sunfish's esophagus that was stranded in the south coast of Terceira Island, Azores Archipelago in 2004; an association with apparent advantages for the goose barnacles such as a regular intake of food and protection both from hydrodynamic hazards and from predators: but for the sunfish, it is not clear whether it is neutral, of advantage or causes feeding problems since the attachment may obstruct the sunfish's esophagus (Ref. 55063). Parasites of the species include 1 monogenean, 6 trematodes, 3 cestodes and 4 copepods (Ref. 5951). The fish is registered as the heaviest bony fish and as the one with the most eggs in the Guinness Book of World Records (Ref. 6472).
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Pascualita Sa-a
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Migration

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Oceanodromous. Migrating within oceans typically between spawning and different feeding areas, as tunas do. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.
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Christine Papasissi
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Life Cycle

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Produces very numerous and small eggs; 300 million eggs found in a 1.5 m long female (Ref. 4711). Oocytes in the ovaries develop in different stages suggesting Mola mola as a multiple spawner (Ref. 86440). This is the largest clutch estimate for this species (Ref. 53596).
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Armi G. Torres
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Diagnostic Description

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The scaleless body is covered with extremely thick, elastic skin. The caudal fin is replaced by a rudder-like structure called 'clavus'. Dorsal and anal fins very high with short base; in swimming, these fins are flapped synchronously from side to side and can propel the fish at surprisingly good speed. Pectorals small and rounded, directed upward (Ref. 6885). Mouth very small; teeth fused to form a parrot-like beak. Gills 4, a slit behind the last; gill openings reduced to a small hole at the base of the pectoral fins. Gas bladder absent in adults.Description: Characterized further by deep and oval body, nearly circular, depth 1-1.5 in TL; rough texture of skin; clavus supported by about 12 fin rays, of which 8-9 bear ossicles (Ref. 90102).
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Biology

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Molas are distinguished for their distinct morphological characters which include reduced/fused caudal elements, presence of a clavus in place of the caudal fin, absence of a swim bladder and a degenerate, cartilaginous skeleton (Ref. 86435). Adults are found on slopes adjacent to deep water where they come in for shelter and for seeking cleaner fishes. They are usually shy. However, they may become familiar with divers in some locations (Ref. 48637). Individuals often drift at the surface while lying on its side but can swim actively and are capable of directional movements otherwise (Ref. 86435). They swim upright and close to the surface. The dorsal fin often protrudes above the water. Females are larger than males (Ref. 86435). This species has been filmed in 480 m depth with the help of a camera equipped with baits (Lis Maclaren, pers. comm. 2005). Adults eat fishes, mollusks, zooplankton, jellyfish, crustaceans and brittle stars (Ref. 4925, 5951, 48637). A live colony of the cirripede Lepas anatifera were found attached to the anterior portion of the sunfish's esophagus that was stranded in the south coast of Terceira Island, Azores Archipelago in 2004. This association has apparent advantages for the goose barnacles such as a regular intake of food and protection both from hydrodynamic hazards and from predators: but for the sunfish, it is not clear whether it is neutral, of advantage or causes feeding problems since the attachment may obstruct the sunfish's esophagus (Ref. 55063). The sunfish is registered as the heaviest bony fish and as the one with the most eggs in the Guinness Book of World Records (Ref. 6472). Generally this species is not used as food fish; some people consider it as a delicacy (Ref. 30573). The fish can be utilized fresh and can be broiled (Ref. 9988). Some parts of the fish are used in Chinese medicine (Ref. 12166). Molas may contain the same toxin as puffers and porcupine fish (Ref. 13513). They do not adapt well in captivity (Ref. 12382, 37040). Juveniles are victims of California sea lions in Monterey Bay (Ref. 37040).
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Importance

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fisheries: minor commercial; price category: unknown; price reliability:
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Comprehensive Description

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Mola mola Linnaeus

MUSCLES OF THE CHEEK

ADDUCTOR MANDIBULAE (Figures 178, 179: A 1α A 1β, A 2α, A 2β, A 3).—A 1α is fairly small, arising from the fascia over A 2 beneath the orbit, and inserting on the posteroventral face of the maxilla. A 1β originates from the posterolateral face of the palatine and the lateral parasphenoid. It passes anteroventrally to insert on the posterodorsal face of the maxilla. A 2α originates from the dorsolateral preopercle, the anterior and dorsal hyomandibular and by a small slip from the ventromedial face of the pterotic. It passes anteriorly, lateral to ramus mandibularis V, to insert with A 2β and A 3 in the Meckelian fossa. A 2β originates from the lateral parasphenoid (some fibers arising as far back as the posterolateral margin of the bone beneath the basioccipital), the anteroventral and ventral prootic, and the dorsomedial faces of the hyomandibular and metapterygoid. It lies medial to ramus mandibularis V, and inserts together with A 2α and A 3 in the Meckelian fossa. A 3 arises from the lateral quadrate, symplectic, mesopterygoid, and hyomandibular and passes forward to join the insertion tendon of the A 2 complex.

LEVATOR ARCUS PALATINI (Figure 178: L.A.P.).—This is a small muscle, originating from the ventral face of the sphenotic at the rear of the orbit and passing down to insert on the dorsal face of the hyomandibular medial to the posterior extension of A 2α.

DILATATOR OPERCULI (Figure 178: D.O.).—Origin is from the ventral face of the lateral process of the sphenotic. The fibers insert aponeurotically on the dorsal margin of the opercle.

LEVATOR OPERCULI (Figure 178: L.O.).—This is a well-developed muscle, originating from the ventrolateral face of the pterotic and inserting on the posterodorsal face of the opercle.

ADDUCTOR ARCUS PALATINI (Figure 179: A.A.P.).—The muscle is well developed, and passes ventrolaterally from its origin on the lateral face of the parasphenoid to insert on the dorsomedial faces of the palatine, mesopterygoid, metapterygoid, and hyomandibular. Posteriorly, the origin is aponeurotic. Anteriorly, a very small bundle of fibers passes anterolaterally from the parasphenoid to the palatine. It possesses a ventral aponeurosis, and R. maxillaris V passes through it. It bears a striking resemblance to the retractor arcus palatini of the balistoids and ostracioids.

ADDUCTOR OPERCULI (Figure 180: AD.OP.).—The fibers arise from the ventral face of the pterotic and insert on the posterodorsomedial face of the opercle.

MUSCLES OF THE HYOID REGION

VALVULUS.—Origin is from the ventromedial face of the angular, the fibers sweeping anterodorsomedially to fade into the tissues of the mandibular buccal valve.

PROTRACTOR HVOIDEI (Figure 178: PR.HY.).—The fibers arise from the posteroventral face of the dentary and attach to the lateral faces of the anterohyal and posterohyal. The more posteroventral fibers pass medially to a midventral raphe.

HYOHYOIDEI ABDUCTORES (Figure 178: H.AB.).—There are three of these muscles. The dorsalmost passes from the anterodorsomedial face of ray 2 to the posteroventromedial face of ray 3, the second has the same sites of attachment, but involving rays 1 and 2, while the third muscle connects the ventromedial face of ray 1 with the ventromedial regions of the anterohyal and ventrohyal. The muscles are well developed.

HYOHYOIDEI ADDUCTORES (Figures 178, 180: H.AD.).—The muscle is well developed in the lateral wall of the opercular cavity, where it attaches to the medial faces of branchiostegal rays 2-θ. A small anterior slip passes ventrally to attach to the dorsal face of ray 1. Some of the dorsal fibers arise from the medial face of the preopercle and the anterodorsal face of the cleithrum. Ventrally, the fibers attach to the anteromedial face of the cleithrum and the aponeurotic fascia covering the pharyngoclaviculares. Posterodorsally, fibers of the muscle arise from the medial face of the hyomandibular, ventral pterotic, and the fascia covering the wall of the opercular cavity, which, in molids, extends dorsally to the region of the sixth to seventh vertebrae (medial to the posterior part of the pterotic and the supracleithrum). These fibers form the dorsal and medial walls of the cavity between the pterotic and the fifth vertebra, ultimately fading out in the aponeurotic sheet which attaches to the dorsomedial margin of the cleithrum.

HYOHYOIDEUS INFERIORIS (Figure 178: HY.IN.).—This muscle is well developed, passing dorsolaterally from the midline to the lateral face of the anterohyal and the base of the first branchiostegal ray.

STERNOHYOIDEUS (Figures 178, 180: STH.).—Origin is from the anteroventral face of the cleithrum. The ventral fibers pass medial to the rectus communis to the posterior face of the ventrohyal, while the dorsolateral fibers lie lateral to this muscle, also attaching to the ventrohyal.

VENTRAL BRANCHIAL MUSCLES

PHARYNCOCLAVICULARIS EXTERNUS (Figures 178, 180, 181: PHC.E.).—The muscle is well developed near its origin from the ventromedial face of the cleithrum, but fades into an aponeurotic sheet on the inner wall of the opercular cavity, just lateral to the heart. A small ventral bundle continues anterodorsally to insert on the anteroventral face of ceratobranchial 5.

PHARYNGOCLAVICULARIS INTERNUS (Figures 180, 181: PHC.I.).—A large bundle of the muscle inserts on the posteroventral margin of ceratobranchial 5. Most of the fibers grade into the fascia formed by the pharyngoclavicularis externus and the hyohyoidei adductores. A small dorsal bundle continues posteriorly to attach to the medial face of the cleithrum.

OBLIQUI VENTRALES I-III (Figure 181: OBL.V.).—The muscles span the articulations between the ventral faces of the ceratobranchials and the respective hypobranchials of the first three arches.

TRANSVERSI VENTRALES IV, V (Figure 181: TR.V.).—The anterior muscle crosses the midline between the anteroventromedial faces of the fourth ceratobranchials. Transversus V spans the midline between the anteroventromedial faces of the fifth ceratobranchials, and is somewhat larger.

RECTUS VENTRALIS I (Figures 180, 181: RECT.V.).—The muscle connects the anterolateral faces of the first ceratobranchial and hypobranchial to the posterodorsal face of the dorsohyal.

RECTUS COMMUNIS (Figures 180, 181: R.COMM.).—The fibers arise aponeurotically from the posteroventromedial face of the ventrohyal. They grade into a thin, aponeurotic sheet which inserts on the anteroventral face of ceratobranchial 5.

DORSAL BRANCHIAL MUSCLES

LEVATORES EXTERNI I, III, IV (Figure 180: L.EXT.).—Origin is from the dorsomedial face of the hyomandibular, and the muscles are small. Levator I inserts on the dorsolateral face of epibranchial 1 and the ligament between the first and second ceratobranchials. Levator III inserts on the dorsolateral faces of epibranchials 2 and 3, with the bulk of the fibers serving the latter bone. Levator IV is best developed, and inserts along the dorsomedial face of epibranchial 4.

LEVATORES INTERNI II, III (Figure 180: L.INT.).—Both muscles originate from the posteroventral face of the prootic and pass anteroventrally. Levator II inserts on the lateral face of infrapharyngobranchial 2, while levator III inserts on the dorsolateral faces of infrapharyngobranchials 2 and 3.

OBLIQUUS DORSALIS III (Figure 182: OBL.D.).—The muscle connects the posterodorsal face of epibranchial 3 with the posterodorsal faces of infrapharyngobranchials 2 and 3.

TRANSVERSI DORSALES II, IV (Figures 180, 182: TR.D.).—Transversus II arises from the midline beneath and including the ventrolateral surface of the parasphenoid. The more anterior fibers have migrated forward along the parasphenoid, so that this part of the muscle passes posterolaterally from its origin. Insertion is on the dorsomedial face of infrapharyngobranchial 2. Transversus IV passes across the midline between the medial faces of the fourth epibranchials.

RETRACTOR DORSALIS (Figure 182: D.RETR.).—Origin is from the posterodorsolateral faces of the exoccipital and basioccipital, and the neural spine of the first vertebra. The muscle inserts on the posterodorsomedial faces of infrapharyngobranchials 2–4.

ADDUCTORES IV, V (Figures 180, 182: AD.).—Adductor IV is well developed and connects the medial and posteromedial faces of epibranchial 4 and ceratobranchial 4. Adductor V is small, passing from the anterodorsal tip of ceratobranchial 5 to the posterolateral face of epibranchial 4.

SPHINCTER OESOPHAGI (Figures 180, 181, 182: S.O.).—The muscle surrounds the esophagus, attaching primarily to the posterior faces of epibranchial 4 and ceratobranchial 5. Dorsally, some fibers become longitudinally oriented, lying both lateral and medial to the retractor dorsalis. They attach to the posteromedial faces of epibranchial 4 and infrapharyngobranchial 3. Ventrally, some fibers also take on a longitudinal orientation, lying dorsal to transversus ventralis V and attaching to the anteromedial face of ceratobranchial 5.

MUSCLES OF THE PECTORAL REGION

ABDUCTOR SUPERFICIALIS (Figure 178: ABD.S.).—The fibers arise from the anterolateral face of the cleithrum and insert on the dorsolateral faces of the principal fin rays.

ABDUCTOR PROFUNDUS (Figure 178: ABD.P.).—Origin is from the lateral faces of the cleithrum and coracoid, the muscle inserting on the posterolateral faces of the principal rays and the lateral base of the vestigial ray.

ARRECTOR VENTRALIS (Figure 178: ARR.V.).—The muscle arises from the lateral cleithrum dorsal to the abductor superficialis, and inserts on the anterodorsal face of the medial half of the vestigial fin ray.

ADDUCTOR SUPERFICIALIS (Figure 183: ADD.S.).—The fibers arise from the anterodorsomedial face of the cleithrum, and insert on the anteromedial faces of the principal rays some distance distal to their bases.

ADDUCTOR PROFUNDUS (Figure 183: ADD.P.).—Origin is from the medial faces of the cleithrum and coracoid and the posterolateral face of the latter bone. The muscle inserts on the posteromedial faces of the principal rays a little distal to their bases.

ARRECTOR DORSALIS (Figure 183: ARR.D.).—This is a small muscle, originating from the medial face of the cleithrum and inserting on the medial face of the medial half of the vestigial fin ray.

PROTRACTOR PECTORALIS (Figures 178, 180: P.P.).—The muscle originates from the posterodorsal tip of the hyomandibular and the pterotic behind it. It attaches to the anterodorsal face of the cleithrum. The medial fibers intermingle somewhat with the lateral fibers of the levator pectoralis. The muscle lies lateral to the adductor operculi but medial to the levator operculi.

LEVATOR PECTORALIS (Figure 180: TR.).—The fibers of this muscle pass medial to the adductor operculi, and arise from the fascia of the opercular cavity beneath the posterior extension of the hyomandibular. The fibers insert on the anterodorsomedial face of the cleithrum.

MUSCLES OF THE DORSAL FIN

ERECTORES AND DEPRESSORES DORSALES (Figures 178, 184: EREC. + DEPR.).—Only the erectors and depressors of the first two fin rays have separate tendons. In the next fourteen rays, the erectors and depressors have fused, and insert by a single tendon along the lateral face of each ray a little distal to the base. Origin is from the lateral faces of the vertebral centra and neural spines, the posterodorsal surface of the skull, and the septum in the midline dividing the dorsal and anal fin musculature. The ventral fibers are continuous with the surrounding fibers, particularly anteriorly. The muscles to the more anterior rays tend to lie nearer the midline, those to middle rays being best developed. The lateral fibers of the more anterior muscles also take origin from the medial face of the thick, subdermal fascia (represented as cut surface in Figure 178, but not in Figure 184).

SUPRACARINALIS ANTERIOR.—This is a small muscle which arises from the posterodorsal face of the supraoccipital. The fibers soon grade into a long, thin tendon which attaches to the anterodorsal face of the first dorsal pterygiophore.

MUSCLES OF THE ANAL FIN

ERECTORES AND DEPRESSORES ANALES. (Figure 184: EREC. + DEPR.).—The first two fin rays have separate erector and depressor tendons, the tendons to the other fourteen fin rays being compound, owing to the fusion of the erector and depressor muscles. Insertion of these tendons is on the lateral faces of the rays a little distal to their bases. The fibers originate from the lateral septum, the centra and haemal spines of the seventh to sixteenth vertebrae, and the basal pterygiophores of the anal fin. The fibers do not encroach on the abdominal cavity, and intermingle in the dorsal region.

LATERAL BODY MUSCLES

EPAXIALIS (Figures 178, 184: EPAX.).—The muscle is much reduced. Anteriorly, it arises from the posterodorsal tip of the epiotic. It passes posteriorly as a very thin sheet, just below the skin, and gradually becomes broader. It is separated from the erector-depressor complex by a tough fascia, from the medial surface of which the lateral fibers of this latter complex arise. Vague myomeres are recognizable, there being some fifteen of them before the fibers become continuous with the section serving the dorsal eight caudal fin rays. This main posterior section arises from the lateral faces of the caudal fin supporting elements and the centra and neural spines of the fourteenth to sixteenth vertebrae. Insertion is tendinous on the anterolateral bases of the eight dorsal caudal fin rays.

OBLIQUUS SUPERIORIS (Figure 184: OBL.S.).—Posteriorly, vague fibers in the subdermal tissue are continuous with the amerodorsolateral surface of the muscle mass serving the ventral caudal fin rays. The mass of this musculature arises from the lateral faces of the ventral caudal fin supporting elements and the centra and haemal spines of the fifteenth and sixteenth vertebrae. Insertion is tendinous on the anterolateral bases of the eight ventral caudal fin rays.

OBLIQUUS INFERIORIS (Figure 178: OBL.I.).—The muscle is reduced to two small fiber bundles. The anteroventral one arises from the posteromedial face of the coracoid, and soon fades out in the fascia overlying the abdominal cavity. The other section arises from the posteroventral tip of the postcleithrum and passes posteroventrally into the subdermal tissue, fading out just above the first pterygiophore of the anal fin. It is just possible that this section represents the residual first in· clinator analis, but it seems more likely that it is part of the obliquus inferioris.
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Winterbottom, Richard. 1974. "The familial phylogeny of the Tetraodontiformes (Acanthopterygii: Pisces) as evidenced by their comparative myology." Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 1-201. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00810282.155

分布

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分布於全世界各熱帶及溫帶暖水域海域。台灣南部、東北部及東部海域有產。
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利用

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主要漁法為標槍及定置網,全年皆產,無明顯盛漁期,產量不大,但因其腸價昂,且肉質尚佳,故亦為漁獲對象。魚腸宜炒食,魚肉則適紅燒及煮、炸。台灣東部地區產量較豐。因食物鰱中有時會包含四齒魨及刺河魨,食之可能引起中毒。
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描述

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體高而側扁,呈卵圓形,無尾柄。頭高而側扁。眼小,上側位,眼間隔突起。吻圓鈍。口小,端位;上下頜各具一喙狀齒板,無中央縫。鰓孔小,位於胸鰭基底前方。體和鰭均粗糙,具棘狀或粒狀突起;無側線。背鰭高大呈鐮刀形;臀鰭與背鰭同形且相對;背鰭與臀鰭鰭條向後延伸至體末端相連而形成一圓形假尾鰭(pseudo- caudal fin)或稱舵鰭(clavus);無腹鰭;胸鰭短小,圓形,胸鰭基部橫行,並不垂直;尾鰭消失。體背側灰褐色,腹側銀灰色;體側帶細小斑點。各鰭灰褐色。
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棲地

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大洋性表層魚類。獨游或成對游泳,有時會集一小群。行動遲緩,常側臥於水面而隨波逐流,或正常游泳於表水面,露出背鰭,亦能潛入百米之深水中。以魚類、軟體動物、水母、甲殼類、浮游動物及易碎的海星等為食。成熟的母魚體內含卵量可達3億粒,卵小而多,是已知卵數最多的魚種。
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Ocean sunfish

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The ocean sunfish or common mola (Mola mola) is one of the largest bony fish in the world. It was misidentified as the heaviest bony fish, which was actually a different species, Mola alexandrini.[4] Adults typically weigh between 247 and 1,000 kg (545 and 2,205 lb). The species is native to tropical and temperate waters around the world. It resembles a fish head without a tail, and its main body is flattened laterally. Sunfish can be as tall as they are long when their dorsal and ventral fins are extended.

Sunfish are generalist predators that consume largely small fish, fish larvae, squid, and crustaceans. Sea jellies and salps, once thought to be the primary prey of sunfish, make up only 15% of a sunfish's diet. Females of the species can produce more eggs than any other known vertebrate,[5] up to 300,000,000 at a time.[6] Sunfish fry resemble miniature pufferfish, with large pectoral fins, a tail fin, and body spines uncharacteristic of adult sunfish.

Adult sunfish are vulnerable to few natural predators, but sea lions, killer whales, and sharks will consume them. Sunfish are considered a delicacy in some parts of the world, including Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. In the European Union, regulations ban the sale of fish and fishery products derived from the family Molidae.[7] Sunfish are frequently caught in gillnets.

A member of the order Tetraodontiformes, which also includes pufferfish, porcupinefish, and filefish, the sunfish shares many traits common to members of this order. The ocean sunfish, Mola mola, is the type species of the genus.

Naming and taxonomy

The ocean sunfish is one of the heaviest bony fish. It has a flattened body and is as tall as it is long.

Many of the sunfish's various names allude themselves to its flattened shape. Its scientific name, mola, is Latin for "millstone", which the fish resembles because of its gray color, rough texture, and rounded body. Its common English name, sunfish, refers to the animal's habit of sunbathing at the surface of the water. Its common names in Dutch, Portuguese, French, Spanish, Catalan, Italian, Russian, Greek, Hungarian, Norwegian, and German (maanvis, peixe lua, Poisson lune, pez luna, peix lluna, Pesce luna, рыба-луна, φεγγαρόψαρο, holdhal, månefisk and Mondfisch, respectively) mean "moon fish", in reference to its rounded shape. In German, the fish is also known as Schwimmender Kopf, or "swimming head". In Polish, it is named samogłów, meaning "head alone" or "only head", because it has no true tail. In Swedish, Danish and Norwegian it is known as klumpfisk, in Dutch klompvis, in Finnish möhkäkala, all of which mean "lump fish". The Chinese translation of its academic name is 翻車魚; fān chē yú, meaning "toppled wheel fish". The ocean sunfish has various superseded binomial synonyms, and was originally classified in the pufferfish genus, as Tetraodon mola.[8][9] It is now placed in its own genus, Mola, with three species: Mola mola, Mola tecta and Mola alexandrini (previously known as Mola ramsayi). The ocean sunfish, Mola mola, is the type species of the genus.[10]

The genus Mola belongs to the family Molidae. This family comprises three genera: Masturus, Mola and Ranzania. The common name "sunfish" without qualifier is used to describe the marine family Molidae and the freshwater sunfish in the family Centrarchidae, which is unrelated to Molidae. On the other hand, the name "ocean sunfish" and "mola" refer only to the family Molidae.[5]

The family Molidae belongs to the order Tetraodontiformes, which includes pufferfish and filefish. It shares many traits common to members of this order, including the four fused teeth that form the characteristic beak and give the order its name (tetra=four, odous=tooth, and forma=shape). Indeed, sunfish fry resemble spiky pufferfish more than they resemble adult molas.[11]

Description

A sunfish fry, which still possesses spines that will later disappear
A skeleton, showing the structure of the fins

The caudal fin of the ocean sunfish is replaced by a rounded clavus, creating the body's distinct truncated shape. The body is flattened laterally, giving it a long oval shape when seen head-on. The pectoral fins are small and fan-shaped, while the dorsal fin and the anal fin are lengthened, often making the fish as tall as it is long. Specimens up to 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) in height have been recorded.[12]

The mature ocean sunfish has an average length of 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) and a fin-to-fin length of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in). The weight of mature specimens can range from 247 to 1,000 kg (545 to 2,205 lb),[5][13][14] but even larger individuals are not unheard of. The maximum size recorded is 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) in length,[12][15] and maximum weight recorded is 2,300 kg (5,100 lb).[15]

The spinal column of M. mola contains fewer vertebrae and is shorter in relation to the body than that of any other fish.[16] Although the sunfish descended from bony ancestors, its skeleton contains largely cartilaginous tissues, which are lighter than bone, allowing it to grow to sizes impractical for other bony fishes.[16][17] Its teeth are fused into a beak-like structure,[18] which prevents them from being able to fully close their mouths, while also having pharyngeal teeth located in the throat.[19]

The sunfish lacks a swim bladder.[16] Some sources indicate the internal organs contain a concentrated neurotoxin, tetrodotoxin, like the organs of other poisonous tetraodontiformes,[18] while others dispute this claim.[20]

Fins

In the course of its evolution, the caudal fin (tail) of the sunfish disappeared, to be replaced by a lumpy pseudotail, the clavus. This structure is formed by the convergence of the dorsal and anal fins,[21][22] and is used by the fish as a rudder.[23] The smooth-denticled clavus retains 12 fin rays and terminates in a number of rounded ossicles.[24]

Ocean sunfish often swim near the surface, and their protruding dorsal fins are sometimes mistaken for those of sharks.[25] However, the two can be distinguished by the motion of the fin. Unlike most fish, the sunfish swings its dorsal fin and anal fin in a characteristic sculling motion.[26]

Skin

Adult sunfish range from brown to silvery-grey or white, with a variety of region-specific mottled skin patterns.[5] Coloration is often darker on the dorsal surface, fading to a lighter shade ventrally as a form of countershading camouflage. M. mola also exhibits the ability to vary skin coloration from light to dark, especially when under attack.[5] The skin, which contains large amounts of reticulated collagen, can be up to 7.3 cm (2+34 in) thick on the ventral surface, and is covered by denticles and a layer of mucus instead of scales. The skin on the clavus is smoother than that on the body, where it can be as rough as sandpaper.[16]

More than 40 species of parasites may reside on the skin and internally, motivating the fish to seek relief in a number of ways.[5][24] One of the most frequent ocean sunfish parasites is the flatworm Accacoelium contortum.[27]

In temperate regions, drifting kelp fields harbor cleaner wrasses and other fish which remove parasites from the skin of visiting sunfish. In the tropics, M. mola solicits cleaning help from reef fishes. By basking on its side at the surface, the sunfish also allows seabirds to feed on parasites from its skin. Sunfish have been reported to breach, clearing the surface by approximately 3 m (10 ft), in an apparent effort to dislodge embedded parasites.[25][28]

Range and behavior

Typical swimming position

Ocean sunfish are native to the temperate and tropical waters of every ocean in the world.[16] Mola genotypes appear to vary widely between the Atlantic and Pacific, but genetic differences between individuals in the Northern and Southern hemispheres are minimal.[29]

Although early research suggested sunfish moved around mainly by drifting with ocean currents, individuals have been recorded swimming 26 km (16 mi) in a day at a cruising speed of 3.2 km/h (1.7 kn).[23]

While this might be the case most of the time, they are also capable of moving rapidly when feeding or avoiding predators, to the extent that they can vertically leap out of water. Contrary to the perception that sunfish spend much of their time basking at the surface, M. mola adults actually spend a large portion of their lives actively hunting at depths greater than 200 m (660 ft), occupying both the epipelagic and mesopelagic zones.[30]

Characteristic horizontal basking behavior

Sunfish are most often found in water warmer than 10 °C (50 °F);[30] prolonged periods spent in water at temperatures of 12 °C (54 °F) or lower can lead to disorientation and eventual death.[26] Surface basking behavior, in which a sunfish swims on its side, presenting its largest profile to the sun, may be a method of "thermally recharging" following dives into deeper, colder water in order to feed.[29][31] Sightings of the fish in colder waters outside of its usual habitat, such as those southwest of England, may be evidence of increasing marine temperatures,[32][33] although the proximity of England's southwestern coast to the Gulf Stream means that many of these sightings may also be the result of the fish being carried to Europe by the current.[34]

Sunfish are usually found alone, but occasionally in pairs.[16]

Feeding

The diet of the ocean sunfish was formerly thought to consist primarily of various jellyfish. However, genetic analysis reveals that sunfish are actually generalist predators that consume largely small fish, fish larvae, squid, and crustaceans, with jellyfish and salps making up only around 15% of the diet.[35] Occasionally they will ingest eel grass. This range of food items indicates that the sunfish feeds at many levels, from the surface to deep water, and occasionally down to the seafloor in some areas.[5]

Life cycle

Ocean sunfish may live up to ten years in captivity, but their lifespan in a natural habitat has not yet been determined.[25] Their growth rate remains undetermined. However, a young specimen at the Monterey Bay Aquarium increased in weight from 26 to 399 kg (57 to 880 lb) and reached a height of nearly 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) in 15 months.[26]

The sheer size and thick skin of an adult of the species deters many smaller predators, but younger fish are vulnerable to predation by bluefin tuna and mahi mahi. Adults are consumed by orca, sharks[16] and sea lions.[5][26]

The mating practices of the ocean sunfish are poorly understood, but spawning areas have been suggested in the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Pacific, South Pacific, and Indian oceans.[16] Females are estimated to be carrying as many as 300 million eggs, more than any other known vertebrate.[5] Sunfish eggs are released into the water and externally fertilized by sperm.[24]

Newly hatched sunfish larvae are only 2.5 mm (332 in) long and weigh less than one gram. They develop into fry, and those which survive can grow up to 60 million times their original weight before reaching adult proportions,[23] arguably the most extreme size growth of any vertebrate animal.[36][37]

Sunfish fry, with large pectoral fins, a tail fin, and body spines uncharacteristic of adult sunfish, resemble miniature pufferfish, their close relatives.[24][38] Young sunfish school for protection, but this behavior is abandoned as they grow.[39]

Genome

In 2016, researchers from China National Genebank and A*STAR Singapore, including Nobel laureate Sydney Brenner, sequenced the genome of the ocean sunfish and discovered several genes which might explain its fast growth rate and large body size. As member of the order Tetraodontiformes, like fugu, the sunfish has quite a compact genome, at 730 Mb in size. Analysis from this data suggests that sunfish and pufferfishes diverged approximately 68 million years ago, which corroborates the results of other recent studies based on smaller datasets.[40]

Human interaction

A sunfish caught in 1910, with an estimated weight of 1,600 kg (3,500 lb)

Despite their size, ocean sunfish are docile and pose no threat to human divers.[24] Injuries from sunfish are rare, although a slight danger exists from large sunfish leaping out of the water onto boats; in one instance, a sunfish landed on a 4-year-old boy when the fish leaped onto the boy's family's boat.[41] Areas where they are commonly found are popular destinations for sport dives, and sunfish at some locations have reportedly become familiar with divers.[18] They are more of a problem to boaters than to swimmers, as they can pose a hazard to watercraft due to their large size and weight. Collisions with sunfish are common in some parts of the world and can cause damage to the hull of a boat,[42] or to the propellers of larger ships, as well as to the fish.[24]

The flesh of the ocean sunfish is considered a delicacy in some regions, the largest markets being Taiwan and Japan. All parts of the sunfish are used in cuisine, from the fins to the internal organs.[20] Some parts are used in some areas of traditional medicine.[18] Fishery products derived from sunfish are forbidden in the European Union according to Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council as they contain toxins that are harmful to human health.[7]

Sunfish are accidentally but frequently caught in drift gillnet fisheries, making up nearly 30% of the total catch of the swordfish fishery employing drift gillnets in California.[23] The bycatch rate is even higher for the Mediterranean swordfish industry, with 71% to 90% of the total catch being sunfish.[20][39]

The fishery bycatch and destruction of ocean sunfish are unregulated worldwide. In some areas, the fish are "finned" by fishermen who regard them as worthless bait thieves; this process, in which the fins are cut off, results in the eventual death of the fish, because it can no longer propel itself without its dorsal and anal fins.[43] The species is also threatened by floating litter such as plastic bags which resemble jellyfish, a common prey item. Bags can choke and suffocate a fish or fill its stomach to the extent that it starves.[25]

Many areas of sunfish biology remain poorly understood, and various research efforts are underway, including aerial surveys of populations,[44] satellite surveillance using pop-off satellite tags,[20][44] genetic analysis of tissue samples,[20] and collection of amateur sighting data.[45] A decrease in sunfish populations may be caused by more frequent bycatch and the increasing popularity of sunfish in human diet.[16]

In captivity

A tank at the Monterey Bay Aquarium provides a size comparison between an ocean sunfish and humans.

Sunfish are not widely held in aquarium exhibits, due to the unique and demanding requirements of their care. Some Asian aquaria display them, particularly in Japan.[26] The Kaiyukan Aquarium in Osaka is one of few aquariums with M. mola on display, where it is reportedly as popular an attraction as the larger whale sharks.[46] The Lisbon Oceanarium in Portugal has sunfish showcased in the main tank,[47] and in Spain, the Valencia Oceanogràfic[48] has specimens of sunfish. The Ocean sunfish is also on display at the Denmark Nordsøen Oceanarium.[49]

In Kamogawa Sea World the ocean sunfish named Kukey, who started captivity in 1982, set a world record for captivity for 2,993 days, living for eight years. Kukey was 72 cm (2.36 ft) at the time of delivery, but was 187 cm (6.14 ft) in size at the time of death.[50][51]

Video of an ocean sunfish at the Lisbon Oceanarium

While the first ocean sunfish to be held in an aquarium in the United States is said to have arrived at the Monterey Bay Aquarium in August 1986,[52] other specimens have previously been held at other locations. Marineland of the Pacific, closed since 1987 and located on the Palos Verdes Peninsula in Los Angeles County, California, held at least one ocean sunfish by 1961,[53] and in 1964 held a 290-kilogram (650 lb) specimen, said to be the largest ever captured at that time.[54] However, another 450-kilogram (1,000 lb) specimen was brought alive to Marineland Studios Aquarium, near St. Augustine, Florida, in 1941.[55]

Because sunfish had not been kept in captivity on a large scale before, the staff at Monterey Bay was forced to innovate and create their own methods for capture, feeding, and parasite control. By 1998, these issues were overcome, and the aquarium was able to hold a specimen for more than a year, later releasing it after its weight increased by more than 14 times.[26] Mola mola has since become a permanent feature of the Open Sea exhibit.[23] Monterey Bay Aquarium's largest sunfish specimen was euthanized on February 14, 2008, after an extended period of poor health.[56]

A major concern to curators is preventive measures taken to keep specimens in captivity from injuring themselves by rubbing against the walls of a tank, since ocean sunfish cannot easily maneuver their bodies.[46] In a smaller tank, hanging a vinyl curtain has been used as a stopgap measure to convert a cuboid tank to a rounded shape and prevent the fish from scraping against the sides. A more effective solution is simply to provide enough room for the sunfish to swim in wide circles.[26] The tank must also be sufficiently deep to accommodate the vertical height of the sunfish, which may reach 3.2 m (10 ft 6 in).[12]

Feeding captive sunfish in a tank with faster-moving, more aggressive fish can also present a challenge. Eventually, the fish can be taught to respond to a floating target to be fed,[57] and to take food from the end of a pole or from human hands.[26]

References

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Ocean sunfish: Brief Summary

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The ocean sunfish or common mola (Mola mola) is one of the largest bony fish in the world. It was misidentified as the heaviest bony fish, which was actually a different species, Mola alexandrini. Adults typically weigh between 247 and 1,000 kg (545 and 2,205 lb). The species is native to tropical and temperate waters around the world. It resembles a fish head without a tail, and its main body is flattened laterally. Sunfish can be as tall as they are long when their dorsal and ventral fins are extended.

Sunfish are generalist predators that consume largely small fish, fish larvae, squid, and crustaceans. Sea jellies and salps, once thought to be the primary prey of sunfish, make up only 15% of a sunfish's diet. Females of the species can produce more eggs than any other known vertebrate, up to 300,000,000 at a time. Sunfish fry resemble miniature pufferfish, with large pectoral fins, a tail fin, and body spines uncharacteristic of adult sunfish.

Adult sunfish are vulnerable to few natural predators, but sea lions, killer whales, and sharks will consume them. Sunfish are considered a delicacy in some parts of the world, including Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. In the European Union, regulations ban the sale of fish and fishery products derived from the family Molidae. Sunfish are frequently caught in gillnets.

A member of the order Tetraodontiformes, which also includes pufferfish, porcupinefish, and filefish, the sunfish shares many traits common to members of this order. The ocean sunfish, Mola mola, is the type species of the genus.

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Description

provided by World Register of Marine Species
It often drifts at the surface while lying on its side, or swims upright and so close to the surface that the dorsal fin projects above the water. Sometimes reaches depths of up to 300 m (Ref. 9317). Feeds on animal plankton, eel larvae, small deep-sea fishes; also on jellyfish, crustaceans, molluscs, and brittlestars (Ref. 4925). In Guiness Book of Records it was recorded as the heaviest bony fish and as the one with the most eggs (Ref. 6472). Also occasionally caught with encircling nets (Ref. 9119) and harpoon (Ref. 9988). Mola is the latin word for millstone. Utilized fresh and can be broiled (Ref. 9988).

Reference

Froese, R. & D. Pauly (Editors). (2023). FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication. version (02/2023).

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Diet

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Feeds on fishes, mollusks, zooplankton, jellyfish, crustaceans and brittle stars

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

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Distribution

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Newfoundland to Argentina

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

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Habitat

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Found in warm and temperate seas, often drifting on the surface.

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

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Habitat

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nektonic

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

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Habitat

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Known from seamounts and knolls

Reference

Stocks, K. 2009. Seamounts Online: an online information system for seamount biology. Version 2009-1. World Wide Web electronic publication.

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