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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 47 years (captivity)
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Distribution

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Common carp are native to Europe but have been widely introduced and are now found worldwide except for the poles and northern Asia.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Introduced ); palearctic (Native ); oriental (Introduced ); ethiopian (Introduced ); neotropical (Introduced ); australian (Introduced )

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
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Associations

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Predators on young carp include large fish such as northern pike, muskellunge, walleye, and largemouth bass. (Froese and Pauly, 2002; Baldry, 2000) Birds such as great blue herons probably also eat them. Adults have no predators other than people.

Known Predators:

  • northern pike (Esox lucsius)
  • muskellunge (Esox masquinongy)
  • largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
  • great blue herons (Ardea herodias)
  • humans (Homo sapiens)
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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Morphology

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Carp often grow 30 to 60 cm in length and weigh 0.5 to 4 kg (Tomelleri and Eberle 1990); it is not uncommon for common carp to reach 15 to 20 kg (McCrimmon 1968). Males are usually distinguished from females by the larger ventral fin. Carp are characterized by their deep body and serrated dorsal spine (Nelson 1984). The mouth is terminal on the adult and subterminal on the young (Page and Burr 1991). Color and proportions are extremely variable, but scales are always large and thick. Three sub-species with slightly different scale patterns are recognized. C. carpio communis (scale carp) has regular concentric scales, C. carpio specularis (mirror carp) large scales running along the side of the body in several rows with the rest of the body naked, and C. carpio coiaceus (leather carp) with few or no scales on the back and a thick skin (McCrimmon 1968).

Range mass: 20 (high) kg.

Average mass: 0.5-4 kg.

Average length: 30-60 cm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Life Expectancy

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There is a report of a common carp living an astounding 47 years, probably in captivity. Other reports of 17 to 20 years are probably more typical.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
13.0 to 20.0 years.

Range lifespan
Status: captivity:
47.0 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
38.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
6.4 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
20.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
47.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
6.0 years.

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Habitat

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Carp exploit large and small man made and natural reservoirs, and pools in slow or fast moving streams. They prefer larger, slower-moving bodies of water with soft sediments but they are tolerant and hardy fish that thrive in a wide variety of aquatic habitats.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; freshwater

Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; lakes and ponds; rivers and streams

Wetlands: marsh

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Trophic Strategy

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Carp are primarily selective benthic omnivores that specialize on invertebrates that live in the sediments (Lammens and Hoogenboezem 1991). Newly hatched carp initially feed on zooplankton; specifically rotifers, copepods, and algae (McCrimmon 1968). Young of year carp feed on a variety of macroinvertebrates including chironomids, caddis flies, mollusks, ostracods, and crustaceans (McCrimmon 1968). Adult carp are known to eat a wide variety of organisms including, insects, crustaceans, annelids, mollusks, fish eggs, fish remains, and plant tubers and seeds (McCrimmon 1968, Lammens and Hoogenboezem, 1991). Carp feed by sucking up mud from the bottom ejecting it and them selectively consuming items while they are suspended (McCrimmon 1968). The feeding galleries of carp are easily recognized in shallow waters as depressions in the sediment (Cahn 1929).

Animal Foods: fish; eggs; carrion ; insects; mollusks; terrestrial worms; aquatic crustaceans; zooplankton

Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; seeds, grains, and nuts; algae; macroalgae

Primary Diet: omnivore

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Associations

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The unique method of feeding employed by common carp has important ecological implications. The feeding of carp has been shown to decimate macrophytes and decreases overall water quality (Drenner et al. 1997). Carp tend to reduce macrophyte biomass in three ways; 1) Bioturbation- Carp often uproot aquatic macrophytes when feeding, 2) Direct Consumption- Carp have been known to feed on tubers and young shoots, 3) Indirectly by increasing turbidity which in turn limits the available sunlight (Lougheed et al. 1997, Fletcher et al. 1985). Carp have been shown to decrease water quality by increasing turbidity and increasing the amount of nutrients in the water column (Lamarra, 1975; Brabrand et al. 1990). Carp increase turbidity directly by resuspending sediments and indirectly by increasing nutrients and thus increasing phytoplankton in the water column. Carp increase nutrients in the water column in two ways. A minimal amount of nutrients are introduced into the water column directly by sediment resuspension but the majority of carp introduced nutrients are acquired by excretion (Lamarra, 1975; Brabrand et al. 1990). Carp act as "nutrient pumps" when they consume the nutrient rich benthic sediments and then excrete those nutrients back into the water column in a form that is available to other organisms (Drenner et al. 1996). This tendency to cause a general decay in water quality and the high fecundity of the carp has caused them to be generally regarded as a nuisance (McCrimmon 1968; Page et al. 1991).

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Benefits

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Carp are an important food fish throughout most of the world except for in Australia and North America where the fish is considered unpalatable (McCrimmon 1968; Banarescu and Coad 1991). The world catch rate of carp per year exceeds 200,000 tons (Banarescu and Coad 1991). The more colorful carp, called Koi, are bred in captivity and sold as ornamental pond fish.

Positive Impacts: pet trade ; food

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Benefits

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Common carp are an introduced species throughout most of the world and are generally considered a nuisance.

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Conservation Status

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Common carp are common throughout much of the world.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: critically endangered

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Behavior

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Perception Channels: tactile ; chemical

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Untitled

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These fish often overwhelm any ecosystem where they are introduced, so people have tried to get rid of them. The most successful method involves killing all fish in the lake with a poison, and then re-stocking the desirable species.

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Reproduction

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Mating System: polyandrous

Carp generally spawn in the spring and early summer depending upon the climate. They segregate into groups in the shallows to spawn. Carp prefer shallow waters with dense macrophyte cover. Males externally fertilize eggs, which the females scatter over macrophytes in a very active manner. The eggs stick to the substrate upon which they are scattered. A typical female (about 45 cm) may produce 300,000 eggs, with some estimates as high as one million over the breeding season. Incubation is related to water temperature and has been documented at three days at temperatures of 25 to 32C. Fry average 5 to 5.5 mm in total length. Temperature, stocking density, and availability of food influence individual growth. By the time the fish reach 8 mm the yolk has disappeared and they begin to actively feed. Males typically become sexually mature at 3 to 5 years and females at 4 to 5 years.

Breeding season: spring and early summer; year round in tropical areas

Average number of offspring: 300000.

Range gestation period: 4.0 (high) days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3.0 to 5.0 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3.0 to 5.0 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; year-round breeding ; sexual ; fertilization (External ); oviparous

Average number of offspring: 300000.

Females facilitate attachment of fertilized eggs to the substrate. There is no further parental care.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement

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Chumchal, M. 2002. "Cyprinus carpio" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cyprinus_carpio.html
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Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
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Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
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Biology

provided by Arkive
This species is omnivorous, feeding on aquatic crustaceans, insects, worms, aquatic plants, algae and seeds (2). Its feeding technique, of grubbing around in the sediment and straining food from the mud, has caused problems in areas where the carp has been introduced. As well as uprooting submerged vegetation, it also increases the cloudiness of the water, which can have detrimental effects on native wildlife (2) (6). In temperate waters, spawning take place during the summer in patches of weeds. A number of males pursue spawning females in the race to fertilise the eggs as they are shed into the water. The sticky yellowish coloured eggs attach to vegetation, and are not guarded by the parents (2). A typical female can lay over a million eggs in one breeding season (2). By gulping air at the surface, the carp is able to tolerate periods when oxygen levels in the water fall (2). In winter, individuals go into deeper waters which tends to be somewhat warmer than shallow water (2).
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Conservation

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Conservation action is not required for this introduced species in Britain.
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Description

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The carp that occurs in Britain today is the most commercially important freshwater fish kept in ponds, and has been selectively bred for centuries. This breeding has led to two main differences between 'domesticated' carp and wild carp (which do not occur in Britain); domestic carp have a much faster growth rate and a relatively short body with a high back and deep belly (4). The body is greyish to bronze in colour (2) and two fleshy barbels project downwards at either side of the mouth (4). The number of scales varies greatly, with some individuals (known as leather carp) completely lacking scales (4). The usual form found in Britain is called the king carp, another form, the mirror carp has a single row of large scales along the sides (5).
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Habitat

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This hardy fish is able to tolerate a broad range of conditions, but fares best in large bodies of fresh water with slow-flowing or still water, with soft muddy sediments (2).
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Range

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The carp now has a global distribution, after numerous introductions (2). The supposed original wild European population occurs in the River Danube (2). This original population is now under threat, but a paucity of information means that the extent to which it is threatened is unclear. It is therefore classified as Data Deficient by the IUCN (world conservation union) Red List of threatened species (2) (3)
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Status

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Domestic carp: common and widespread: not threatened (2). Wild carp: classified as Data Deficient (DD) on the IUCN Red List 2003 (3).
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Threats

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This species is not threatened.
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Brief Summary

provided by Ecomare
Carp was imported by man from Asia and Eastern Europe to Western Europe at the beginning of the Christian Era. It was also intentionally released in North America in 1877, where it has now become a plague. Carp eat from the bottom. Using their barbels, they feel the bottom for such animals as worms, mollusks and crustaceans. They will also eat plant material. When in captivity, they can reach a ripe age of several dozen years.
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Brief Summary

provided by FAO species catalogs
The natural conditions that suit carp are lowland lakes and rivers where there is abundant vegetation to provide food and shelter.They thrive in warm-water conditions, and require temperatures of at least 18º C to spawn. Consequently the success of populations introduced to northern Europe and the British Isles is dependent on warm weather during spring and summer.Omnivorous, feeds mainly on bottom-living insect larvae, small snails, crustaceans, and some vegetable matter. They are most active at night, and feed little at low temperatures. The diet of the young includes small planktonic crustaceans, but the larvae, after they have utilized the yolk from the egg, feed on minute rotifers and algae, and the young stages of water-fleas.

Diagnostic Description

provided by FAO species catalogs
Body elongated and somewhat compressed. Lips thick. Two pairs of barbels at angle of mouth, shorter ones on the upper lip. Dorsal fin base long with 17-22 branched rays and a strong, toothed spine in front; dorsal fin outline concave anteriorly. Anal fin with 6-7 soft rays; posterior edge of 3rd dorsal and anal fin spines with sharp spinules. Lateral line with 32 to 38 scales. Pharyngeal teeth 5:5, teeth with flattened crowns. Colour variable, wild carp are brownish-green on the back and upper sides, shading to golden yellow ventrally. The fins are dusky, ventrally with a reddish tinge. Golden carp are bred for ornamental purposes.

Reference

Sawada, Y. - 1984Cypriniformes. In: H. Masuda; K. Amaoka; C. Araga; T. Uyeno; T. Yoshino (eds.). The Fishes of the Japanese Archipelago. Tokai. Univ. Press. 54-58.

Benefits

provided by FAO species catalogs
The carp is very popular as a food-fish in Europe (and elsewhere), and is well suited for raising in fish farms; carp farming is now a considerable industry. Carp is also a popular anglers' fish and many waters are stocked with large fish. Owing to its popularity as a food or sporting fish. The total catch reported for this species to FAO for 1999 was 75 235 t. The countries with the largest catches were Turkey (17 797 t) and Thailand (14 000 t). Utilized fresh and frozen.

Size

provided by FAO species catalogs
Growth is variable with local conditions. In south-eastern Europe (where conditions are optimum) an average length of 51-61 cm an weight of 1.8-4.5 kg is attained; in northern Europe it is rather less. A maximum weight of 32 kg is recorded (Italy, 1886).

Distribution

provided by FAO species catalogs
European lakes and rivers. It has been widely introduced to other parts of the world (North America, southern Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Asia).

Diseases and Parasites

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Anchorworm Disease (Lernaea sp.). Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Recorder
Allan Palacio
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Diseases and Parasites

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Thelohanellus Infection 1. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Trichodinella Infection 3. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Trichodina Infection 7. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Myxobolus Infection 1. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Trichodina Infection 5. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Myxobolus Infection 4. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Myxobolus Infection 3. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Trichodinella Infection 2. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Trichodina Infection 3. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Trichodina Infection 2. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Trichodina Infection 1. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Columnaris Disease (e.). Bacterial diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Turbidity of the Skin (Freshwater fish). Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Fish leech Infestation. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Epitheliocystis. Bacterial diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Trichodinosis. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Fin-rot Disease (late stage). Bacterial diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Lymphocystis Disease. Viral diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Skin Flukes. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Pallisentis Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Fungal Gill Rot (sanguinis). Fungal diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Bacterial Infections (general). Bacterial diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Chilodonella Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Edwardsiellosis. Bacterial diseases
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Life Cycle

provided by Fishbase
Spawn in marginal, shallow, weed-infested areas. A polytypic plastic species with a marked tendency to produce `varieties' and `races' in response to selective breeding and environmental influences. Carp is polygamous. A spawning female is usually followed by several males. Under tropical conditions carp breeds throughout the year. It is a seasonal spawner in temperate waters (Ref. 185). Females are known to lay more than a million eggs in a season; breeds at a temperature range of 15° C to 20°C; eggs hatch in 4 days (Ref. 6028). Obligatory plant spawners (Ref. 7471). "Adults often make considerable spawning migrations to suitable backwaters and flooded meadows. Individual females spawn with a few males in dense vegetation. The sticky eggs are attached to water plants or other submerged objects. Reproductive success is restricted to years when the water level starts rising in May and when high temperatures and flooding of terrestrial vegetation last for a long period during May and June" (Ref. 59043).
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Migration

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Potamodromous. Migrating within streams, migratory in rivers, e.g. Saliminus, Moxostoma, Labeo. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.
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Morphology

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Dorsal spines (total): 3 - 4; Dorsal soft rays (total): 17 - 23; Anal spines: 2 - 3; Analsoft rays: 5 - 6; Vertebrae: 36 - 37
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Trophic Strategy

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Inhabit lakes, ponds or slow moving waters, preferably with a muddy bottom; riverine conditions do not appear to suit the carp. Though they occur naturally in open river systems they are never known to dominate the environment. Larger fish generally frequent deeper waters. Common carp are acclimated to a variety of habitats and extremes of environment, eg high salinities and low oxygen concentrations (Ref. 6390). They have been observed to gulp air at the surface of oxygen-depleted waters (Ref. 30478). During winter carp go into deeper water which will be comparatively warmer than water in shallow areas.They are now established in the wild in Zimbabwe (Ref. 4967).Common carps are active swimmers that can leap obstacles up to 1 meter high and negotiate torrential flows (Ref. 2906).Feed on detritus, plants and benthic organisms (Ref. 6258, 10294). They feed by 'roiling', ie straining material from the mud (Ref. 6390). They will also take aquatic plants and insects from the surface (Ref. 2906). Also Ref. 9666.
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Diseases and Parasites

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Hole-in-the-Head Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diagnostic Description

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Diagnosed from other cyprinid species in Europe by having the following characters: 2 pairs of barbels; dorsal fin with 15-20½ branched rays; caudal fin deeply emarginate (Ref. 59043). Pharyngeal teeth 1, 1, 3:3, 1,1, robust, molar-like with crown flattened or somewhat furrowed. Scales large and thick. `Wild carp ' is generally distinguished by its less stocky build with height of body 1:3.2-4.8 in standard length. Very variable in form, proportions, squamation, development of fins, and color. Caudal fin with 3 spines and 17-19 rays (Ref. 2196). Last simple anal ray bony and serrated posteriorly; 4 barbels; 17-20 branched dorsal rays; body grey to bronze (Ref. 43281). Also Ref. 3398, 3410.
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Red spot Disease. Bacterial diseases
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Enteric Redmouth Disease. Bacterial diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Koi Herpes Virus. Viral diseases
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Fish Pox Disease. Viral diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Velvet Disease 2 (Piscinoodinium sp.). Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Congenital Deformities. Others
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Diseases and Parasites

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Carp Iridovirus. Viral diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Carp Coronovirus Infection. Viral diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Carp Reovirus. Viral diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Anchor worm Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Columnaris Disease (l.). Bacterial diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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White spot Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Trichodinella Infection 1. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Unspecified tumors. Neoplasia (tumors of unknown origin)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Dactylogyrus Gill Flukes Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Water mold Disease (l.). Fungal diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Costia Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Boil Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Coccidiosis (intestine). Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Diseases and Parasites

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Diseases and Parasites

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Infectious ascites (Ornament.). Bacterial diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Lymphocystis Disease (dark). Viral diseases
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SVC. Viral diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Aeromonosis. Bacterial diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Fin Rot (early stage). Bacterial diseases
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Diseases and Parasites

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Capillaria Infestation 3. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
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Biology

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Inhabits warm, deep, slow-flowing and still waters such as lowland rivers and large, well vegetated lakes (Ref. 59043). Hardy and tolerant of a wide variety of conditions but generally favor large water bodies with slow flowing or standing water and soft bottom sediments. Thrive in large turbid rivers (Ref. 1998). Most active at dusk and dawn. Both adults and juveniles feed on a variety of benthic organisms and plant material. Breeds along shores or in backwaters. Adults often undertake considerable spawning migration to suitable backwaters and flooded meadows. Larvae survive only in very warm water among shallow submerged vegetation (Ref. 59043). Occurs at depths of 200 cm; not recommended for home aquariums (Ref. 51539).
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Importance

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fisheries: highly commercial; aquaculture: commercial; gamefish: yes; aquarium: commercial
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分布

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原分布於歐亞大陸,目前已廣泛分布於世界各地。臺灣各河川中下游與池塘皆有分布。
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利用

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大眾化之食用魚,紅燒與糖醋均適宜。
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描述

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體延長而側扁,肥厚而略呈紡綞形,背部略隆起,腹緣呈淺弧形。頭中大,頭頂寬聞。吻鈍圓,上頜包著下頜。口略小,下位,斜裂,呈圓弧形。咽頭齒3列,齒式3.1.1-1.1.3。鬚兩對,吻鬚較短,頜鬚較長。鰓耙短而呈三角形,鰓耙數19-24。體被圓鱗,側線完全,略為弧形,側線鱗數31-36。背鰭硬棘 III,分枝軟條 16-20;臀鰭 硬棘III,分枝軟條5;尾鰭叉形。背鰭與臀鰭第III條硬棘後緣有鋸齒。體背部暗灰色或黃褐色,側面略帶黃綠色,腹面淺灰色或銀白色。背鰭和尾鰭基部微黑色;胸鰭和腹鰭微金黃色。
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棲地

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初級淡水魚。適應性強,多棲息於水域中下層,而以富營養水域底泥砂質靜水域為主,較少棲息於流水域中。有集體群游習性。為雜食性魚類,以小型無脊椎動物與底棲動物為主。
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Cyprinus mahuensis

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Painting by Ellen Edmonson.

The Eurasian carp or European carp (Cyprinus carpio), widely known as the common carp, is a widespread freshwater fish of eutrophic waters in lakes and large rivers in Europe and Asia.[2][3] The native wild populations are considered vulnerable to extinction by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN),[1] but the species has also been domesticated and introduced (see aquaculture) into environments worldwide, and is often considered a destructive invasive species,[2] being included in the list of the world's 100 worst invasive species. It gives its name to the carp family, Cyprinidae.

Taxonomy

Common Carp by Alexander Francis Lydon.

The two subspecies are:

A third subspecies, Cyprinus carpio haematopterus (Amur carp), native to eastern Asia, was recognized in the past,[4] but recent authorities treat it as a separate species under the name Cyprinus rubrofuscus.[1][5] The common carp and various Asian relatives in their pure forms can be separated by meristics and also differ in genetics, but they are able to interbreed.[1][6] Common carp can also interbreed with the goldfish (Carassius auratus); the result is called Kollar carp.[7][8]

History

The common carp is native to Europe and Asia and has been introduced to every part of the world except the poles. They are the third most frequently introduced (fish) species worldwide,[9] and their history as a farmed fish dates back to Roman times.[10] Carp are used as food in many areas but are also regarded as a pest in several regions due to their ability to out-compete native fish stocks.[11] The original common carp was found in the inland delta of the Danube River about 2000 years ago and was torpedo-shaped and golden-yellow in colour. It had two pairs of barbels and a mesh-like scale pattern. Although this fish was initially kept as an exploited captive, it was later maintained in large, specially built ponds by the Romans in south-central Europe (verified by the discovery of common carp remains in excavated settlements in the Danube delta area). As aquaculture became a profitable branch of agriculture, efforts were made to farm the animals, and the culture systems soon included spawning and growing ponds.[12] The common carp's native range also extends to the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Aral Sea.

Both European and Asian subspecies have been domesticated.[4] In Europe, domestication of carp as food fish was spread by monks between the 13th and 16th centuries. The wild forms of carp had already reached the delta of the Rhine in the 12th century, probably with some human help.[13] Variants that have arisen with domestication include the mirror carp, with large, mirror-like scales (linear mirror – scaleless except for a row of large scales that run along the lateral line; originating in Germany), the leather carp (virtually unscaled except near dorsal fin), and the fully scaled carp. Koi carp (錦鯉 (nishikigoi) in Japanese, 鯉魚 (pinyin: lĭ yú) in Chinese) is a domesticated ornamental variety that originated in the Niigata region of Japan in the 1820s,[14] but its parent species are likely the East Asian carp, possibly C. rubrofuscus.[1][5]

Physiology

Dutch wild carp.

The carp has a robust build, with a dark gold sheen most prominent on its head. Its body is adorned with large conspicuous scales that are very shiny. It has large pectoral fins and a tapering dorsal fin running down the last two thirds of its body, getting progressively higher as it nears the carp’s head. Its caudal and anal fins may either be a dark bronze or washed with a rubbery orange hue. The mouth of the carp is downwards-turned, with two pairs of barbels, the ones on the bottom being larger. Wild common carp are typically slimmer than domesticated forms, with body length about four times body height, red flesh, and a forward-protruding mouth. Common carp can grow to very large sizes if given adequate space and nutrients. Their average growth rate by weight is about half the growth rate of domesticated carp[15][16] They do not reach the lengths and weights of domesticated carp, which (range, 3.2–4.8 times)[2] can grow to a maximum length of 120 centimetres (47 in), a maximum weight of over 40 kilograms (88 lb),[2] and an oldest recorded age of 38 years.[2] The largest recorded carp, caught by British angler, Colin Smith, in 2013 at Etang La Saussaie Fishery, France, weighed 45.59 kilograms (100.5 lb). The average size of the common carp is around 40–80 cm (16–31 inches) and 2–14 kg (4.4–30.9 lb).

The skeleton of a European carp.
European carp x-ray.

Habitat

Although tolerant of most conditions, common carp prefer large bodies of slow or standing water and soft, vegetative sediments. As schooling fish, they prefer to be in groups of five or more. They naturally live in temperate climates in fresh or slightly brackish water with a pH of 6.5–9.0 and salinity up to about 0.5%,[17] and temperatures of 3 to 35 °C (37–95 °F).[2] The ideal temperature is 23 to 30 °C (73–86 °F), with spawning beginning at 17 to 18 °C (63–64 °F); they easily survive winter in a frozen-over pond, as long as some free water remains below the ice.[17] Carp are able to tolerate water with very low oxygen levels, by gulping air at the surface.[3][18]

Diet

Common carp are omnivorous. They can eat a herbivorous diet of aquatic plants, plant tubers, and seeds, but prefer to scavenge the bottom for insects, crustaceans (including zooplankton and crawfish), molluscs, benthic worms, fish eggs, and fish remains.[19] Common carp feed throughout the day with the most intensive feeding at night and around sunrise.[20]

Reproduction

An egg-layer, a typical adult female can lay 300,000 eggs in a single spawn.[21] Although carp typically spawn in the spring, in response to rising water temperatures and rainfall, carp can spawn multiple times in a season. In commercial operations, spawning is often stimulated using a process called hypophysation, where lyophilized pituitary extract is injected into the fish. The pituitary extract contains gonadotropic hormones which stimulate gonad maturation and sex steroid production, ultimately promoting reproduction.

Predation

A single carp can lay over a million eggs in a year.[3] Eggs and fry often fall victim to bacteria, fungi, and the vast array of tiny predators in the pond environment. Carp which survive to juvenile are preyed upon by other fish such as the northern pike and largemouth bass, and several birds (including cormorants, herons, goosanders, and ospreys)[22] and mammals (including otter and mink).

Introduction into other habitats

Carp gather near a dock in Lake Powell, Arizona.
Carp in the duck pond in Herbert Park, Dublin, Ireland.
Koi feeding. The koi are ornamental varieties of domesticated carp and are kept in garden ponds. Although the koi's parent species has been considered the common carp, recent authorities believe it originates from an East Asian carp, possibly C. rubrofuscus.[1][5]

Common carp have been introduced to most continents and some 59 countries. In absence of natural predators or commercial fishing, they may extensively alter their environments due to their reproductive rate and their feeding habit of grubbing through bottom sediments for food. In feeding, they may destroy, uproot, disturb and eat submerged vegetation, causing serious damage to native duck, such as canvasbacks, and fish populations.[23][24]

Carp were introduced to Australia over 150 years ago but were not seen as a recognised pest species until the ‘Boolarra’ strain appeared in the 1960s.[25][26] After spreading massively through the Murray–Darling basin, aided by massive flooding in 1974,[25] they have established themselves in every Australian territory except for the Northern Territory.[27] In Victoria, the common carp has been declared a noxious fish species, and the quantity a fisher can take is unlimited.[28] In South Australia, it is an offence for this species to be released back to the wild.[29] An Australian company produces plant fertilizer from carp.[30][31]

Efforts to eradicate a small colony from Lake Crescent in Tasmania, without using chemicals, have been successful, but the long-term, expensive and intensive undertaking is an example of both the possibility and difficulty of safely removing the species once it is established.[32] One proposal, regarded as environmentally questionable, is to control common carp numbers by deliberately exposing them to the carp-specific koi herpes virus with its high mortality rate.[27] In 2016, the Australian Government announced plans to release this virus into the Murray–Darling basin in an attempt to reduce the number of invasive common carp in the water system.[33][34] However, in 2020, this plan was found to be unlikely to work.[35] The CSIRO has also developed a technique for genetically modifying carp so that they only produce male offspring. This daughterless carp method shows promise for totally eradicating carp from Australia's waterways.

Common carp were brought to the United States in 1831.[36] In the late 19th century, they were distributed widely throughout the country by the government as a food-fish, but they are now rarely eaten in the United States, where they are generally considered pests. As in Australia, their introduction has been shown to have negative environmental consequences.[37]

In Utah, the common carp's population in Utah Lake is expected to be reduced by 75 percent by using nets to catch millions of them, and either giving them to people who will eat them or processing them into fertilizer. This, in turn, will give the declining population of the native June sucker a chance to recover.[38] Another method of control is to trap them with seine nets in tributaries they use to spawn, and exposing them to the piscicide rotenone. This method has been shown to reduce their impact within 24 hours and greatly increase native vegetation and desirable fish species. It also allows native fish to prey more easily on young carp.

Common carp are thought to have been introduced into the Canadian province of British Columbia from Washington state. They were first noted in the Okanagan Valley in 1912, as was their rapid growth in population. Carp are currently distributed in the lower Columbia (Arrow Lakes), lower Kootenay, Kettle (Christina Lake), and throughout the Okanagan system.[39]

In 2020, scientists demonstrated that a small proportion of fertilized common carp eggs ingested by waterfowl survive passing through the digestive tract and hatch after being retrieved from the feces.[40][41] Birds exhibit strong preference for fish eggs, while cyprinids produce hundreds of thousands of eggs at a single spawning event. These data indicate that despite the low proportion of eggs surviving the digestive tract of birds, endozoochory might provide a potentially overlooked dispersal mechanism of invasive cyprinid fish. If proven under natural circumstances, endozoochorous dispersal of invasive fish could be a strong conservation concern for freshwater biodiversity.

Common carp aquaculture

Global Aquaculture Production of common carp in tonnes from 1950 to 2013

Common carp contributed around 4.67 million tons on a global scale during 2015–2016, roughly accounting for 7.4% of the total global inland fisheries production. In Europe, common carp contributed 1.8% (0.17 Mt) of the total inland fisheries production (9.42 Mt) during 2015–2016. It is a major farmed species in European freshwater aquaculture with production localized in central and eastern European countries. The Russian Federation (0.06 Mt) followed by Poland (0.02 Mt), Czech Republic (0.02 Mt), Hungary (0.01 Mt) and Ukraine (0.01 Mt) represents about 70% of carp production in Europe during 2016. In fact, the land‐locked central European countries rely heavily on common carp aquaculture in fishponds. The average productivity of carp culture systems in central European countries ranges between 0.3 and 1 ton ha−1. The European common carp production, in terms of volume, reached its peak (0.18 Mt) during 2009–2010 and has been declining since. Carp farming is often criticized as an anthropogenic driver of eutrophication of inland freshwater bodies - especially in the Central Eastern European Region (CEER). There has been some debate between environmentalists and carp farmers concerning eutrophication of water bodies, manifested into lobbying at ministry levels surrounding fishpond legislations.[42][43] European carp aquaculture in fish ponds most likely has the least nutrient burden to the environment than most food production sectors in the European Union.[44]

As food and sport

Lake Prespa carp, as served.
European carp caught with an artificial fly.

The annual tonnage of common carp produced in China alone, not to mention the other cyprinids, exceeds the weight of all other fish, such as trout and salmon, produced by aquaculture worldwide. Roughly three million tonnes are produced annually, accounting for 14% of all farmed freshwater fish in 2002. China is by far the largest commercial producer, accounting for about 70% of carp production.[17] Carp is eaten in many parts of the world both when caught from the wild and raised in aquaculture.

In Central Europe, it is a traditional part of a Christmas Eve dinner. Hungarian fisherman's soup, a specially prepared fish soup of carp alone or mixed with other freshwater fish, is part of the traditional meal for Christmas Eve in Hungary along with stuffed cabbage and poppy seed roll and walnut roll. A traditional Czech Christmas Eve dinner is a thick soup of carp's head and offal, fried carp meat (sometimes the meat is skinned and baked instead) with potato salad or boiled carp in black sauce. A Slovak Christmas Eve dinner is quite similar, with soup varying according to the region and fried carp as the main dish. Also in Austria, parts of Germany, and Poland, a fried carp is one of the traditional dishes on Christmas Eve.

In Western Europe, the carp is cultivated more commonly as a sport fish, although there is a small market for it as a food fish.[45][46] Carp are mixed with other common fish to make gefilte fish, popular in Jewish cuisine. Common carp are extremely popular with anglers in many parts of Europe, and their popularity as quarry is slowly increasing among anglers in the United States (though they are still generally considered pests and destroyed in most areas of the U.S.), and southern Canada. Carp are also popular with spear, bow, and fly fishermen.

In the United States, carp is mostly ignored as a food fish. Almost all U.S. shoppers bypass carp, due to a preference for filleted fish as opposed to cooking whole. Carp have smaller intramuscular bones called y-bones, which makes them a whole fish species for cooking.

The Romans farmed carp and this pond culture continued through the monasteries of Europe and to this day. In China, Korea, and Japan, carp farming took place as early as the Yayoi period (c. 300 BC – AD 300).[47]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Freyhof, J.; Kottelat, M. (2008). "Cyprinus carpio". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T6181A12559362. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T6181A12559362.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Fishbase: Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758
  3. ^ a b c Arkive: Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) Archived 2010-01-01 at the Wayback Machine
  4. ^ a b c Jian Feng Zhou, Qing Jiang Wu, Yu Zhen Ye & Jin Gou Tong (2003). Genetic divergence between Cyprinus carpio carpio and Cyprinus carpio haematopterus as assessed by mitochondrial DNA analysis, with emphasis on origin of European domestic carp Genetica 119: 93–97
  5. ^ a b c Craig, J.F., eds. (2015). Freshwater Fisheries Ecology. p. 297. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-39442-7.
  6. ^ Zhou, J., Wu, Q., Wang, Z. and Ye, Y. (2004). Molecular Phylogenetics of Three Subspecies of Common carp Cyprinus Carpio, based on sequence analysis of cytochrome b and control region of mtDNA. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 42(4): 266–269.
  7. ^ Taylor, J., R. Mahon. 1977. Hybridization of Cyprinus carpio and Carassius auratus, the first two exotic species in the lower Laurentian Great Lakes. Environmental Biology Of Fishes 1(2):205-208.
  8. ^ Photo of goldfish x common carp hybrid Archived 2007-10-17 at the Wayback Machine in Melton Hill Reservoir from the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency
  9. ^ Courtenay, Walter R.; Welcomme, R. L. (1989-05-23). "International Introductions of Inland Aquatic Species". Copeia. 1989 (2): 520. doi:10.2307/1445460. ISSN 0045-8511. JSTOR 1445460.
  10. ^ Balon, Eugene K. (1974), "Probable Origin of Domestication", Domestication of the carp Cyprinus caprio L., Royal Ontario Museum, pp. 16–18
  11. ^ "Common Carp." Aliens Among Us. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. <http://alienspecies.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/eng/species/common-carp&gt;.
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Cyprinus mahuensis: Brief Summary

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Painting by Ellen Edmonson.

The Eurasian carp or European carp (Cyprinus carpio), widely known as the common carp, is a widespread freshwater fish of eutrophic waters in lakes and large rivers in Europe and Asia. The native wild populations are considered vulnerable to extinction by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), but the species has also been domesticated and introduced (see aquaculture) into environments worldwide, and is often considered a destructive invasive species, being included in the list of the world's 100 worst invasive species. It gives its name to the carp family, Cyprinidae.

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Introduction

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This species has been introduced or released in Dutch waters.

Reference

2. Fish, J. D. & Fish, S. (1996) A student's guide to the seashore. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

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Appeltans, Ward, W.