Field Bindweed

Foodplant / gall
Eriophyes convolvuli causes gall of leaf of Convolvulus arvensis

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / parasite
Erysiphe convolvuli parasitises live Convolvulus arvensis

Foodplant / open feeder
adult of Longitarsus pellucidus grazes on leaf of Convolvulus arvensis

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Melanagromyza albocilia feeds within stem of Convolvulus arvensis

Foodplant / spot causer
epiphyllous, immersed, brown pycnidium of Septoria coelomycetous anamorph of Septoria convolvuli causes spots on fading leaf of Convolvulus arvensis
Remarks: season: 7-8

Foodplant / spot causer
few, hypophyllous, immersed, pallid pycnidium of Stagonospora coelomycetous anamorph of Stagonospora calystegiae causes spots on fading leaf of Convolvulus arvensis
Remarks: season: 7-9

Foodplant / pathogen
immersed sorus of Thecaphora seminis-convolvuli infects and damages seeds (in capsule) of Convolvulus arvensis
Remarks: season: 8-10

Foodplant / feeds on
adult of Thrips atratus feeds on live flower of Convolvulus arvensis

Herbs perennial, with ± woody rhizomes. Stems prostrate or twining, to 1 m tall, glabrous or sparsely pubescent. Petiole 0.3-2 cm; leaf blade ovate-oblong to ovate, 1.5-5 X 1-4 cm, glabrous or pubescent, base hastate, sagittate, or cordate, apex obtuse, mucronulate; prominently 3-veined basally, upper parts pinnately veined. Inflorescences axillary, cymose, 1-3-flowered; peduncle 3-8 cm; bracts 2, linear, ca. 3 mm. Pedicel ca. 4 as long as calyx. Sepals unequal, 3.5-5 mm; outer 2 broadly oblong to obovate, shorter, abaxially sparsely pubescent or glabrous, margin ± ciliate, apex retuse; inner ones ovate-circular, margin membranous, apex obtuse or retuse. Corolla white or pink, broadly funnelform, 1.5-2.6 cm, midpetaline bands pubescent outside distally; limb shallowly 5-lobed. Stamens included, unequal; filaments minutely scaly basally. Disc cupular. Ovary ovoid, glabrous or sparsely pubescent. Stigmas cylindric. Capsule ovoid to subglobose, 5-8 mm, glabrous. Seeds 4 or fewer, dark brown or black, ovoid, 3-4 mm, tuberculate. Fl. Jun-Aug, fr. Jun-Sep. 2n = 24, 48, 50.

Anhui, Gansu, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Xizang [Asia, Europe, North America, South America].

Temperate regions.

2600-4100 m

Cultivated areas, wasteland, roadsides, grassy slopes; 600-4500 m.

Convolvulus arvensis var. angustatus Ledebour; C. arvensis var. crassifolius Choisy; C. arvensis var. linearifolius Choisy; C. arvensis var. sagittatus Ledebour; C. arvensis var. sagittifolius Turczaninow; C. chinensis Ker Gawler; C. sagittifolius (Fischer) Liou & Ling.

More info for the terms: seed, severity

While no information is available regarding the direct effects of fire on field
bindweed plants and seeds, some information on the effects of various heat
treatments on viability of field bindweed seed is available.

Harmon and Keim [57] tested the longevity of several weed
seeds after burial in horse and cow manure over a period of 1 to 4 months. The
temperature in the horse and cow manure reached 158
°F (66 °C) and 150
°F (70 °C),
respectively, in 2 weeks. Percent germination of field bindweed seed before
burial was 84%. In horse manure, germination was 6% after 1 month (without acid
treatment), 8% after 2 months (with acid treatment), and 0% thereafter. In cow
manure, germination was 4% after 1 month (without acid treatment), 22% after 2
months (with acid treatment), 1% after 3 months (1 weak bindweed seedling was
obtained), and 0% thereafter. Field bindweed seeds retained viability longer
than all other weed seeds tested.
Similarly, most weed seeds tested by Wiese and others [148] were
killed after 3 days or more exposure at
120 °F (49 °C) in compost; it required 7 days of
exposure at 180 °F (83 °C) to kill
all field bindweed seed in compost. In dry air, all species survived 140
°F (60 °C) for 30
days. All seeds except field bindweed were killed in dry air by 160
°F (72 °C) for 3 days,
while it took 7 days of exposure at 180 °F (83
°C) to reduce viability of field bindweed seed from
about 30% to 7%, and 30 days to reduce field bindweed seed viability to 5%.
Field bindweed seed was
killed by a 12-day exposure in an outside storage
pile of compost. Ensiling field bindweed seed seemed to have no effect on its viability [156].
These results suggest that field bindweed seed may survive low severity fire.

field bindweed

field
morning-glory

morning glory

small bindweed

devil's guts

More info for the terms: forest, natural, seed

As of this writing (2004), field bindweed is classified as a noxious or
prohibited weed or weed seed in 35 states in the U.S. and 5 Canadian provinces [139].
See the Invaders, Plants, or APHIS
databases for more information. The Eastern Region of the U.S. Forest Service ranks
field bindweed as a Category 3 plant: often restricted to disturbed ground and not
especially invasive in undisturbed natural habitats [136].

More info for the terms: capsule, fruit, phenology, seed, vine

The following description of field bindweed is based on descriptions found in several florae
[30,64,65,71,81,88,127]. It provides
characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for
identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g. [60,64,65,88,146,149]). Proper identification is
important if control strategies are planned, as
field bindweed may closely resemble some native morning-glories.

Field bindweed is a perennial vine arising from deep, persistent, spreading roots. It has slender, trailing to
somewhat twining, branched
stems, 8 to 79 inches (20-200 cm) long, sometimes forming tangled mats. Herbage is glabrous to
pubescent and leaves are variable, 0.4 to 4 inches (1-10 cm) long and 0.1 to 2.4
inches (0.3-6 cm) wide, with
petioles 5-40 mm long. Peduncles arise from leaf axils, range from 0.2 to 2.4
inches (0.5-6 cm)
long, and bear 1 to several flowers. Corollas are broadly funnelform, 0.6 to 1.2
inches (1.5-3 cm)
long and 0.9 to 1.4 inches (2.2-3.5 cm) broad. Fruit is a capsule, 5-10 mm long, bearing 1 to 4
seeds, each about 3-4 mm long. Kennedy and Crafts [74] provide a detailed description
of the anatomy of field bindweed.

Several authors describe variations in botanical characteristics of field
bindweed. A review by Weaver and Riley [144] indicates the leaves of field
bindweed vary greatly in size and shape with environmental factors such as light intensity,
soil moisture, and damage due to frequent cultivation or defoliation. Degennaro
and Weller [35] identified and characterized 5 biotypes among field bindweed
clones collected from a field in Indiana. Consistent variations in leaf
morphology, floral characteristics, flowering capacity, phenology, vegetative
reproduction potential, and accumulation of shoot and root biomass were found
between biotypes when grown in a controlled environment. Pollination studies
showed that presumed biotypes were self-incompatible. The variability in growth
and reproduction observed in field bindweed biotypes may explain the survival
and adaptability of a field bindweed population as environmental conditions and
control practices change.

Several researchers have described the anatomy and development of field
bindweed roots (e.g. [34,47,74,75]). The root system is characterized by a taproot with large numbers of
annual lateral roots that develop adventitiously throughout its length, and penetrate
the soil in all directions
(see Seedling establishment/growth for more detail).
Some laterals are ephemeral and some are persistent. It is by
these lateral roots that plants spread horizontally. Shoot buds arise on these
horizontal laterals and develop into rhizomes which, reaching the surface,
establish new crowns [47,74]. The ability to
produce buds, together with the root food reserves, favors vegetative
reproduction and makes field bindweed plants persistent [74]
(see Asexual regeneration for more detail).

Field bindweed taproots may be 2 to 10 feet (0.5-3 m) or more long. Other
vertical roots may penetrate to depths of 17 to 30 feet (5-9 m) [10,66,75],
depending on climate and soil type. Lateral roots are found primarily in the top
12 inches (30 cm) of soil, and most commonly in the upper 4 to 6 inches
[47,75,128]. In field bindweed plants grown from root cuttings in a sandy loam
soil in Oxford, England 70% of lateral root spread was in the top 3 to 6 inches
(7.5-15 cm) of soil, and none was below 12 inches (30 cm) [34]. Similarly, Swan
[128] notes that the lateral roots are generally found within the top 12 inches
(30 cm) of soil, but approximately 1 third of the total root system is in the vertical roots
below the 24 inch (60 cm) zone. Estimates of the amount of root by weight in the upper
24 inches (60 cm) of soil range
from 50% to 70% [133,144]. The concentration of food
reserves increases with root depth, and maximum percentages of reserves were
found in roots 6 to 8 feet (2-2.4 m) deep [10].

Field bindweed from an old-field site in Ontario was among the few plant
species observed in the laboratory that were not infected with native arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi [76]. Field bindweed plants growing on disturbed sites in Utah were infected
with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae [102].

Root exudations may decrease the germination of some crop seed (Grummer 1957, as cited by [128]).

More info for the terms: adventitious, cover, presence, seed

Field bindweed is native to Europe and Asia. Field bindweed is successful in many types of
climates, including temperate, tropical, and mediterranean, but is most
troublesome for agriculture throughout the temperate zone, from 60°N
to 45°S latitude. Fifty-four countries report
field bindweed as a weed in 32 different crops [66].

Field bindweed most likely arrived in the
U.S. as contaminant in farm and garden seeds. Some
plants were introduced intentionally and planted ornamentally as ground cover or
in hanging baskets. It was first noted in Virginia in 1739 and was found all
along the eastern seaboard, from Virginia to Maine, by the early 1800s. Western
migration of field bindweed may have been hastened by the building of railroads; however,
field bindweed seeds
continued to arrive whenever immigrants settled new areas or whenever crop seed
was imported. A "bindweed plague" in the Great Plains in 1877 was attributed to Ukrainian settlers who
inadvertently brought the weed seed in wheat (Triticum spp.) seed during
the early 1870s. Field bindweed reputedly established in the Pacific Northwest when an
Oregon settler used it as a cover crop in his orchard. Field bindweed was evidently present
in California as early as 1838. By the end of the 1st quarter of the 20th
century, field bindweed was considered the "worst weed" in several states and a "serious
pest" in several others, especially west of the Mississippi ([95] and references therein).

The current North American distribution of field bindweed extends from the agricultural
regions of all provinces in Canada (except Newfoundland and Prince Edward
Island) southward throughout the United States and into northern Mexico. It is common to abundant
in the U.S., except in the extreme Southeast and parts of southern Texas, New Mexico, and
Arizona ([144] and references therein). Field bindweed is adventitious in Hawaii [121]. Plants database
provides a state distribution map of field bindweed. Field bindweed is
especially common in cultivated fields and gardens [30,37,50,54,58,60,64,72,81,88,106,110,141,146,149], along roadsides [30,37,50,54,72,81,110,127,141,146,149], railroads [141,146],
"disturbed sites" [37,96,151,153], and "waste places" [50,106,127,141,146]. It is
reported from ballast heaps in Nova Scotia [110].

A survey of weed specialists and herbaria in the continental U.S., conducted
in 1994 and 1995, found that field bindweed occurs at "serious" densities (> 1,000 acres/county) in 957
counties, "moderate" densities (250-1000 acres/county) in 845 counties; and
"low" densities
(< 250 acres/county) in 573 counties, in 47 of the 48 contiguous states.
Only Florida and the southern parts of states from South Carolina to Texas did
not report its presence. The authors also report that field bindweed infestations have increased
in several western states since 1970, but have decreased in importance in most Great Plains states [18].

The following lists suggest ecosystems and vegetation types in which field
bindweed may be invasive, especially following disturbance. It is unclear from
the literature which vegetation types may be susceptible to invasion by field
bindweed in the absence of disturbance. These lists were derived from known or perceived
ecological tolerances of field bindweed, are largely speculative, and may not be
exhaustive.

More info for the terms: cover, fire regime, fire suppression, forbs, grassland, invasive species, litter, natural, nonnative species, seed, shrub, species richness, woodland

Fire adaptations:
There is no information available in the literature regarding fire adaptations of field bindweed. Some inferences
can be made regarding the likely response of field bindweed to fire based on its
reproductive strategies. Field bindweed has a deep and extensive root system with abundant
food reserves and can sprout repeatedly following removal of aboveground
growth [74,75].

Goodwin and others [51] present the following generalization about
rhizomatous weeds and fire, although they provide no supporting evidence.
"Growth of rhizomatous weeds is especially enhanced through the survival of
underground reproductive structures that have access to large energy reserves.
When above-ground weed growth is removed, such as by fire, vegetative shoot
production is strongly stimulated, directly producing great numbers of
individual weeds. Because of the established root reserves, these shoots are
immediately aggressive and highly competitive.

Field bindweed also produces varying amounts of long-lived, durable seed that
survives passing through the digestive tracts of various animals [57,104,111], and long periods
of composting and ensilage [148,156]
(see Discussion and Qualification of Fire Effect).
Considering its survival under such conditions, one might predict that
field bindweed seed would survive low- to moderate-severity fires; however, more information is needed.

FIRE REGIMES:
There is no information on FIRE REGIMES in areas where field bindweed is native or on the effects of FIRE REGIMES on
field bindweed in areas where it is invasive. The response of field bindweed to native
and imposed FIRE REGIMES probably varies among geographic locations, plant
community types, fire adaptations of native species, and other disturbance and
management regimes imposed at a particular site. More information on the effects
of native and imposed FIRE REGIMES on the establishment, persistence, and spread
of field bindweed are needed.

Frequent fire may deter field bindweed and other nonnative invasive species in temperate
grasslands. According to Knapp and Seastedt [77], fire and
grazing are necessary, integral ecosystem processes that maintain productivity
of tallgrass prairie by removing standing and fallen litter. Similarly, Leach
and Givnish [84] recommend prescribed burning (with specific guidelines) in
Wisconsin prairie remnants to maintain native plant diversity. A review by Grace
and others [53] suggests fire is only 1 type of disturbance that may affect the
establishment and spread of invasive species in temperate grasslands. Since fire
return intervals have been and will continue to be heavily influenced by land
use, fire suppression, and grazing, these other disturbances can be expected to
continue to play important roles in the future.

A 15-year study in C4-dominated grasslands (dominated by big bluestem (Andropogon
gerardii) and indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans) and supporting many
nonnative species, including field bindweed) in Konza Prairie Research Natural
Area in eastern Kansas, indicated that patterns of disturbance (i.e. grazing and
fire) strongly affected nonnative plant cover and richness. In particular,
long-term annually burned sites had low cover and few, if any, nonnative
species, whereas richness and cover of exotic species was as much as 5 times higher in long-term unburned sites.
Although the effects of
grazing could not be tested directly, higher nonnative species richness was
associated with both annually burned and unburned grazing treatments. The
authors suggest in their review that annual burning increases the dominance
(i.e. production and abundance) of C4 grasses and decreases
production and abundance of the subdominant grasses and C3 forbs in
this grassland, and may indirectly prevent establishment of nonnative species
[119].

The following table provides fire return intervals for important plant
communities and ecosystems in which field bindweed may occur. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years)
maple-beech-birch Acer-Fagus-Betula > 1,000 [143]
bluestem prairie Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 79,101]
Nebraska sandhills prairie Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus-Schizachyrium scoparium < 10
bluestem-Sacahuista prairie Andropogon littoralis-Spartina spartinae < 10
sagebrush steppe Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata 20-70 [101]
basin big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata 12-43 [113]
mountain big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana 15-40 [4,25,94]
Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis 10-70 (40**) [140,154]
desert grasslands Bouteloua eriopoda and/or Pleuraphis mutica 5-100 [101]
plains grasslands Bouteloua spp. 101,152]
blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass Bouteloua gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii 101,112,152]*
blue grama-buffalo grass Bouteloua gracilis-Buchloe dactyloides 101,152]*
grama-galleta steppe Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis jamesii < 35 to < 100
blue grama-tobosa prairie Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis mutica 101]
cheatgrass Bromus tectorum 103,147]
California montane chaparral Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. 50-100 [101]
sugarberry-America elm-green ash Celtis laevigata-Ulmus americana-Fraxinus pennsylvanica 143]
curlleaf mountain-mahogany* Cercocarpus ledifolius 13-1,000 [5,114]
mountain-mahogany-Gambel oak scrub Cercocarpus ledifolius-Quercus gambelii 101]
California steppe Festuca-Danthonia spp. 101,126]
juniper-oak savanna Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana < 35
Ashe juniper Juniperus ashei < 35
western juniper Juniperus occidentalis 20-70
Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum < 35
cedar glades Juniperus virginiana 3-7
Ceniza shrub Larrea tridentata-Leucophyllum frutescens-Prosopis glandulosa 101]
wheatgrass plains grasslands Pascopyrum smithii 101,105,152]
pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. 101]
Colorado pinyon Pinus edulis 10-400+ [44,52,73,101]
Jeffrey pine Pinus jeffreyi 5-30
Pacific ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa 1-47 [3]
interior ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [3,7,83]
Arizona pine Pinus ponderosa var. arizonica 2-15 [7,29,115]
galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe Pleuraphis jamesii-Aristida purpurea < 35 to < 100
eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides 101]
aspen-birch Populus tremuloides-Betula papyrifera 35-200 [39,143]
quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) Populus tremuloides 7-120 [3,56,92]
mesquite Prosopis glandulosa 91,101]
mountain grasslands Pseudoroegneria spicata 3-40 (10**) [2,3]
California oakwoods Quercus spp. 3]
oak-hickory Quercus-Carya spp. 143]
oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) Quercus-Juniperus spp. 101]
northeastern oak-pine Quercus-Pinus spp. 10 to < 35 [143]
coast live oak Quercus agrifolia 2-75 [55]
white oak-black oak-northern red oak Quercus alba-Q. velutina-Q. rubra 143]
canyon live oak Quercus chrysolepis <35 to 200
blue oak-foothills pine Quercus douglasii-P. sabiniana <35
Oregon white oak Quercus garryana 3]
California black oak Quercus kelloggii 5-30 [101]
bur oak Quercus macrocarpa 143]
oak savanna Quercus macrocarpa/Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 2-14 [101,143]
black oak Quercus velutina 143]
little bluestem-grama prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Bouteloua spp. 101]
elm-ash-cottonwood Ulmus-Fraxinus-Populus spp. 39,143]


*fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species summary

**mean

More info for the terms: cover, fire management, forbs, forest, grassland, nonnative species, phenology, prescribed burn, prescribed fire, presence, restoration, seed, severity, species richness, wildfire

Fire as a control agent:
Prescribed fire alone is not likely to control field bindweed,
but it may be useful in combination with other methods (Callihan and others
1990, as cited by [86]). The effectiveness of prescribed fire as a control
method for field bindweed may vary with the invaded plant community and interactions with
other types of disturbance.

In C4-dominated grasslands, for example, long-term annually burned
watersheds had lower cover of nonnative species (including field bindweed) than unburned watersheds,
and fire reduced nonnative species richness by 80% to 90% [119]. Langstroth [82] recorded the
presence of field bindweed on experimental plots in a California grassland that were grazed by
domestic sheep (short duration) in the summer, but unburned. All other plots
(ungrazed/unburned, spring grazed/unburned, and all burning treatments) had no
field bindweed present.

It is unclear from these results how fire and grazing affect field bindweed
populations over the long term.

Postfire colonization potential:
Field bindweed has the potential to invade an area following fire. Fire provides a suitable seedbed
for field bindweed [42] by removing shade and exposing mineral soil.
Therefore, if field bindweed is present on or near the site prior to burning, there is
potential for its establishment and spread. It is a good idea to survey the
surrounding area for field bindweed and control plants that may contain seed that could be dispersed
into the burn.

Preventing postfire establishment and spread: The USDA Forest
Service's "Guide to Noxious Weed Prevention Practices" [137] provides
several fire management considerations for weed prevention in general that apply
to field bindweed.

Preventing invasive plants from establishing in weed-free burned areas is the
most effective and least costly management method. This can be accomplished
through careful monitoring, early detection and eradication, and limiting
invasive plant seed dispersal into burned areas by [51,137]:

• 
  

  
  re-establishing vegetation on bare ground as soon as possible



• 
  

  
  using only certified weed-free seed mixes when revegetation is necessary
  



• 
  

  
  cleaning equipment and vehicles prior to entering burned areas



• 
  

  
  regulating or preventing human and livestock entry into burned areas until
  desirable site vegetation has recovered sufficiently to resist invasion by
  undesirable vegetation



• 
  

  
  detecting weeds early and eradicating before vegetative spread and/or seed
  dispersal



• 
  

  
  eradicating small patches and containing or controlling large infestations
  within or adjacent to the burned area

In general, early detection is critical for preventing establishment of large
populations of invasive plants. Monitoring in spring, summer, and fall is
imperative. Managers should eradicate established field bindweed plants and
small patches adjacent to burned areas to prevent or limit seed dispersal into
the site [51,137].

The need for revegetation after fire can be based on the degree of desirable
vegetation displaced by invasive plants prior to burning and on postfire
survival of desirable vegetation. Revegetation necessity can also be related to
invasive plant survival as viable seeds, root crowns, or rhizomes capable of
reproduction. In general, postfire revegetation should be considered when
desirable vegetation cover is less than about 30% [51].

When prefire cover of field bindweed is absent to low, and prefire cover
of desirable vegetation is high, revegetation is probably not necessary after
low- and medium-severity burns. After a high-severity burn on a site in this
condition, revegetation may be necessary (depending on postfire survival of
desirable species), and intensive monitoring for invasive plant establishment is
necessary to detect and eradicate newly established invasives before they spread
[51].

When prefire cover of field bindweed is moderate (20-79%) to high
(80-100%), revegetation may be necessary after fire of any severity if cover of
desired vegetation is less than about 30%. Intensive weed management is also
recommended, especially after fires of moderate to high severity [51].

Fall dormant broadcast seeding into ash will cover and retain seeds. If there
is insufficient ash, seedbed preparation may be necessary. A seed mix should
contain quick-establishing grasses and forbs (exclude forbs if broadleaf
herbicides are anticipated) that can effectively occupy available niches.
Managers can enhance the success of revegetation (natural or artificial) by
excluding livestock until vegetation is well established (at least 2 growing
seasons) [51]. See Integrated Noxious Weed Management after Wildfires
for more information.

When planning a prescribed burn, managers should preinventory the project
area and evaluate cover and phenology of any field bindweed and other
invasive plants present on or adjacent to the site, and avoid ignition and
burning in areas at high risk for field bindweed establishment or spread due
to fire effects. Managers should also avoid creating soil conditions that
promote weed germination and establishment. Weed status and risks must be
discussed in burn rehabilitation plans. Also, wildfire managers might consider
including weed prevention education and providing weed identification aids
during fire training; avoiding known weed infestations when locating fire lines;
monitoring camps, staging areas, helibases, etc., to be sure they are kept weed
free; taking care that equipment is weed free; incorporating weed prevention
into fire rehabilitation plans; and acquiring restoration funding. Additional
guidelines and specific recommendations and requirements are available [137].

More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: geophyte, hemicryptophyte

RAUNKIAER [107] LIFE FORM:


Hemicryptophyte
Geophyte

More info for the terms: frequency, grassland, natural, nonnative species

Field bindweed is primarily an agricultural weed, and occurs in cultivated
fields and other disturbed sites such as pastures, gardens, lawns, and along
roadsides and railways. Natural area managers are most likely to find it in
moist locations (e.g. riparian corridors and irrigated areas) on tracts once
used for agriculture [86].

Field bindweed was among several nonnative
plant species identified in a tallgrass prairie study in Kansas, where
nonnative species were most common at the town site and along human and
livestock travel corridors. A gradient was observed with a high abundance of
nonnative species in town to low abundance in prairie sites, with the
distribution of native plants forming a reverse gradient. Sources of nonnative plant introduction were related
to early cattle trails through the community, railroad and stockyard locations,
gardens, cultivated fields, livestock and wildlife activity. Nonnative plants
occurred on truck trails
into the upland prairie but had not yet invaded the surrounding grassland [40]. On study sites on open annual grassland and
blue oak savannah in California, field bindweed was found on both serpentine
and nonserpentine soil types.
It was most frequent near roads on nonserpentine soils and its frequency of occurrence decreased with
increasing distance from the road. This pattern was not observed on serpentine
soils [68].

Field bindweed is found in dry or moderately moist soils and can survive long periods of
drought due to its extensive root system. It grows best on rich, fertile soils but persists on poor, gravelly soils as
well [66]. In Quebec, field bindweed is found primarily on sandy
soils in warm, dry areas (Rousseau 1968 as cited by [144]). In northern California and the Great
Plains, field bindweed persists into autumn under severely dry conditions when most other
plants are unable to sustain growth. Strong sunlight and moderate-to-low moisture
appear to be optimal conditions for field bindweed growth and reproduction [22,78].

Field bindweed appears to be somewhat cold tolerant. Plants extracted from frozen ground in
Michigan had roots that appeared to be severely injured or dead in the uppermost
layers of soil. However, a laboratory test indicated that about 30% of field
bindweed roots survived 21 °F (-6 °C)
for 8 hours, but were unable to survive
18 °F (-8 °C)
for any time period tested [36].

Elevation range: Field bindweed has reportedly been found in
the Himalayas at altitudes of 10,000 feet (3,000 m) ([95] and references therein).
Field bindweed is found in several plant communities in riparian corridors in Wyoming, at
7,000 to 7,500 feet (2,100-2,300 m). Elevation ranges are given by area as follows:

Area Elevation range Reference
CA generally < 5,000 feet (1,500 m) [60,99]
CO 4,000 to 8,000 feet (1,200-2,400 m) [58]
NV 2,200 to 6,500 feet (700-2,000 m) [71]
NM 4,000 to 8,000 feet (1,200-2,400 m) [88]
UT 3,100 to 9,200 feet (930-2,800 m) [146]
Intermountain usually below 6,600 feet (2,000 m) [30]

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

SAF COVER TYPES [43]:





16 Aspen

19 Gray birch-red maple

40 Post oak-blackjack oak

42 Bur oak

50 Black locust

68 Mesquite

109 Hawthorn

110 Black oak

209 Bristlecone pine

216 Blue spruce

217 Aspen

218 Lodgepole pine

219 Limber pine

220 Rocky Mountain juniper

233 Oregon white oak

235 Cottonwood-willow

236 Bur oak

237 Interior ponderosa pine

238 Western juniper

239 Pinyon-juniper

240 Arizona cypress

241 Western live oak

242 Mesquite

246 California black oak

247 Jeffrey pine

249 Canyon live oak

250 Blue oak-foothills pine

255 California coast live oak

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

More info for the term: shrub

ECOSYSTEMS [48]:





FRES10 White-red-jack pine

FRES11 Spruce-fir

FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine

FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine

FRES14 Oak-pine

FRES15 Oak-hickory

FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress

FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood

FRES18 Maple-beech-birch

FRES19 Aspen-birch

FRES20 Douglas-fir

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES22 Western white pine

FRES25 Larch

FRES26 Lodgepole pine

FRES28 Western hardwoods

FRES29 Sagebrush

FRES30 Desert shrub

FRES31 Shinnery

FRES32 Texas savanna

FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

FRES36 Mountain grasslands

FRES37 Mountain meadows

FRES38 Plains grasslands

FRES39 Prairie

FRES40 Desert grasslands

FRES41 Wet grasslands

FRES42 Annual grasslands

FRES44 Alpine

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the terms: forest, shrub, woodland

KUCHLER [80] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:




K015 Western spruce-fir forest

K016 Eastern ponderosa forest

K017 Black Hills pine forest

K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest

K019 Arizona pine forest

K022 Great Basin pine forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K024 Juniper steppe woodland

K026 Oregon oakwoods

K027 Mesquite bosques

K028 Mosaic of K002 and K026

K030 California oakwoods

K031 Oak-juniper woodland

K032 Transition between K031 and K037

K033 Chaparral

K034 Montane chaparral

K035 Coastal sagebrush

K036 Mosaic of K030 and K035

K037 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub

K038 Great Basin sagebrush

K045 Ceniza shrub

K047 Fescue-oatgrass

K048 California steppe

K050 Fescue-wheatgrass

K051 Wheatgrass-bluegrass

K053 Grama-galleta steppe

K054 Grama-tobosa prairie

K055 Sagebrush steppe

K056 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe

K057 Galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe

K060 Mesquite savanna

K063 Foothills prairie

K064 Grama-needlegrass-wheatgrass

K065 Grama-buffalo grass

K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass

K067 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass

K068 Wheatgrass-grama-buffalo grass

K069 Bluestem-grama prairie

K070 Sandsage-bluestem prairie

K074 Bluestem prairie

K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie

K081 Oak savanna

K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100

K083 Cedar glades

K084 Cross Timbers

K085 Mesquite-buffalo grass

K086 Juniper-oak savanna

K087 Mesquite-oak savanna

K088 Fayette prairie

K098 Northern floodplain forest

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the terms: association, cover, forb, grassland, shrub, shrubland, vine, woodland

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [118]:




101 Bluebunch wheatgrass

102 Idaho fescue

103 Green fescue

104 Antelope bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

105 Antelope bitterbrush-Idaho fescue

106 Bluegrass scabland

107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass

109 Ponderosa pine shrubland

110 Ponderosa pine-grassland

201 Blue oak woodland

202 Coast live oak woodland

203 Riparian woodland

204 North coastal shrub

205 Coastal sage shrub

206 Chamise chaparral

207 Scrub oak mixed chaparral

208 Ceanothus mixed chaparral

209 Montane shrubland

210 Bitterbrush

214 Coastal prairie

215 Valley grassland

301 Bluebunch wheatgrass-blue grama

302 Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass

303 Bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass

304 Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass

305 Idaho fescue-Richardson needlegrass

306 Idaho fescue-slender wheatgrass

307 Idaho fescue-threadleaf sedge

309 Idaho fescue-western wheatgrass

310 Needle-and-thread-blue grama

311 Rough fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass

312 Rough fescue-Idaho fescue

314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue

316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue

317 Bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

318 Bitterbrush-Idaho fescue

319 Bitterbrush-rough fescue

320 Black sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

321 Black sagebrush-Idaho fescue

322 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany-bluebunch wheatgrass

323 Shrubby cinquefoil-rough fescue

324 Threetip sagebrush-Idaho fescue

401 Basin big sagebrush

402 Mountain big sagebrush

403 Wyoming big sagebrush

404 Threetip sagebrush

405 Black sagebrush

406 Low sagebrush

407 Stiff sagebrush

408 Other sagebrush types

409 Tall forb

411 Aspen woodland

412 Juniper-pinyon woodland

413 Gambel oak

415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany

416 True mountain-mahogany

417 Littleleaf mountain-mahogany

418 Bigtooth maple

419 Bittercherry

420 Snowbrush

421 Chokecherry-serviceberry-rose

422 Riparian

502 Grama-galleta

503 Arizona chaparral

504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland

509 Transition between oak-juniper woodland and mahogany-oak association

601 Bluestem prairie

602 Bluestem-prairie sandreed

603 Prairie sandreed-needlegrass

604 Bluestem-grama prairie

605 Sandsage prairie

606 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass

607 Wheatgrass-needlegrass

608 Wheatgrass-grama-needlegrass

609 Wheatgrass-grama

610 Wheatgrass

611 Blue grama-buffalo grass

612 Sagebrush-grass

613 Fescue grassland

614 Crested wheatgrass

615 Wheatgrass-saltgrass-grama

701 Alkali sacaton-tobosagrass

702 Black grama-alkali sacaton

703 Black grama-sideoats grama

704 Blue grama-western wheatgrass

705 Blue grama-galleta

706 Blue grama-sideoats grama

707 Blue grama-sideoats grama-black grama

708 Bluestem-dropseed

709 Bluestem-grama

710 Bluestem prairie

712 Galleta-alkali sacaton

713 Grama-muhly-threeawn

714 Grama-bluestem

715 Grama-buffalo grass

716 Grama-feathergrass

717 Little bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas wintergrass

718 Mesquite-grama

720 Sand bluestem-little bluestem (dunes)

721 Sand bluestem-little bluestem (plains)

722 Sand sagebrush-mixed prairie

724 Sideoats grama-New Mexico feathergrass-winterfat

725 Vine mesquite-alkali sacaton

727 Mesquite-buffalo grass

729 Mesquite

730 Sand shinnery oak

731 Cross timbers-Oklahoma

732 Cross timbers-Texas (little bluestem-post oak)

733 Juniper-oak

735 Sideoats grama-sumac-juniper

801 Savanna

802 Missouri prairie

803 Missouri glades

804 Tall fescue

805 Riparian

There is no information available regarding the immediate effects of fire on
field bindweed.
It is likely that fire removes aboveground growth, while leaving the root system
and buried seeds undamaged. More research is needed to determine the effects of
fires of different severities under varied site conditions on field bindweed roots and seeds.

More info for the terms: competition, cover, fire management, fire suppression, forbs, forest, grassland, invasive species, natural, nonnative species, restoration, rhizome, seed, tree, vines

Impacts:
A 1998 review by Lyons [86] indicates that the impact of field bindweed on agricultural lands is well documented,
especially in the central U.S., but the threat it poses to rangelands and
natural areas is unclear. Almost all research on field bindweed pertains to agriculture.
When surveyed in 1982 and 1988, farmers and ranchers in north-central Idaho
considered field bindweed to be one of the 3 most serious weeds in their area [27]. The Eastern
Region of the U.S. Forest Service ranks field bindweed as a Category 3 plant:
often restricted to disturbed ground, and not especially invasive in undisturbed
natural habitats [136]. Natural area managers are most likely to find it in
moist locations (e.g. riparian corridors and irrigated areas) on tracts once
used for agriculture [86].

Field bindweed is found on several of The Nature Conservancy's preserves and may pose a
threat to restoration efforts. Stewards at the Phantom Canyon Preserve in
Colorado report that field bindweed is most likely to invade and reduce cover of native
grasses and forbs in areas that are degraded due to past land use, current human
activity, and fire suppression.
Stewards at Garden Creek Preserve in northern Idaho report that field bindweed threatens
native plant communities by "decreasing biodiversity," and is a direct
threat to several species [86]. At the Thousand Springs Preserve in Idaho,
field bindweed thrives under
cultivated and irrigated conditions, and managers there suggest that field
bindweed "outcompetes" native grasses
[86,109].

Field bindweed competition for nutrients and water may reduce productivity of native plants,
although this has only been studied with crop plants, where yield reductions
range from 0 to 100% [128]. Competition from field bindweed for soil moisture may have
greater impact in dry years [8].

It has been suggested that field bindweed may be mildly toxic to some grazing animals, and
that the amount of field bindweed that can be safely eaten by domestic sheep,
cattle, and goats is not known. It is reported to cause distress in domestic
pigs that eat it (Callihan and others 1990, as cited by [86]).
Field bindweed contains alkaloids that may be toxic to horses [134]. Other
authors report a history of using sheep and pigs to eat field bindweed and thereby help control infestations
[13,122] (see Biological control).

Control:
Field bindweed has a deep,
extensive root system that stores carbohydrates and proteins and allows it to sprout repeatedly following
removal of aboveground growth.
Field bindweed may also
produce abundant, long-lived seed. Strategies to control field bindweed infestations must
include removing established plants and preventing seed production and seedling
establishment. Alcock and others (1974, as cited by [86]) suggest the following as general goals
for field bindweed control:
1) reduce seed in soil 2) prevent seedling growth, 3) deplete food reserves in
the root system 4) prevent its spread.

Eradication of an established invader is rare, and control efforts vary
enormously in their efficacy. Successful control depends more on
commitment and continuing diligence than on the efficacy of specific tools
themselves. Control of biotic invasions is most effective when it employs a
long-term, ecosystem-wide strategy rather than a tactical approach focused on
battling individual invaders [87]. A long-term perspective is important where total eradication is not a
realistic short-term goal. Even with intensive management, field bindweed can
persist as seed for several years, and some authors suggest that 3 to 5 growing
seasons are required in agricultural settings to eliminate seedlings (Callihan
and others 1990, as cited by [86]). The key to implementing a successful control program is to continue
treatment even after it appears the infestations are seriously reduced
[86].

Successful control of field bindweed is most likely if aboveground
biomass is removed multiple times over at least 2 growing seasons (e.g. [13]), or
by planting of competitive species following aboveground removal and continuously monitoring for
and killing sprouts and seedlings. In agriculture, control has been most
successful where tillage is combined with herbicide application, although
herbicide application alone may also be effective
(see Chemical control) [86].

Prevention:
The most efficient and effective method
of managing invasive species is to prevent their invasion and spread [116].
Preventing the establishment of weeds in natural areas is achieved by
maintaining healthy natural communities and by conducting aggressive monitoring
several times each year. Monitoring efforts are best concentrated on the most
disturbed areas in a site, particularly along roadsides, parking lots,
fencelines, and waterways. When a field bindweed infestation is found, the
location can be recorded and the surrounding area surveyed to determine the size
and extent of the infestation, so these sites can be revisited on follow-up
surveys [67]. It is important to kill any field bindweed plants that are found,
followed by some combination of mechanical, chemical and/or biological control.
Prevention of new invasions is much less costly than postinvasion control
[87].

Avoid management activities that encourage invasion and be prepared to
eradicate small infestations that may follow such disturbances. Factors
indicated by Nature Conservancy managers as encouraging field bindweed invasion
include cultivation and irrigation in Idaho grassland and road grading and
haying in Oregon along roadsides and riparian areas [109]. Weed prevention and
control can be incorporated into all types of management plans, including
logging and site preparation, management of grazing allotments, recreation
management, research projects, road building and maintenance, and fire
management [137]. See the USDA "Guide to noxious weed prevention practices"
[137] for specific guidelines and recommendations for preventing the spread of weed
seeds and propagules under different management conditions.

Roads act as dispersal corridors for many invasive species. Avoid road building in nature reserves,
and when unavoidable, redeposit original
topsoil in roadside ditches. Road construction
projects should not be considered complete until native vegetation is fully
established. Road construction projects in nature reserves should be treated and
funded as 10- to 20-year biological projects rather than 1-2 year engineering
projects, with biologists and resource managers consulting on road construction.
Roadsides should be actively managed by regular monitoring for establishment of nonnative species,
and reseeding roadsides with natives [135].

Integrated management:
A combination of complementary control methods may
be helpful for effective control of field bindweed. Integrated management includes not only
killing the target plant, but establishing desirable species and discouraging
nonnative, invasive species over the long term. Components of any integrated
weed management program are sustained effort, constant monitoring and
evaluation, and the adoption of improved strategies. An integrated management
plan includes efforts to place continual stress on undesirable
plants.

In agriculture, most effective programs for the control of field bindweed
combine cultivation and crop rotation with the use of herbicides. A review by
Weaver and Riley [144] summarizes this information as follows: Cultivation at
frequent intervals results in a gradual and continuous reduction in the
concentration of total available carbohydrates and a decrease in root quantity.
However, 1 to 5 years of repeated tillage may be required to exhaust the root
reserves and effectively control populations of field bindweed. Competitive
crops such as winter wheat or perennial forages are able to reduce field
bindweed infestation after 3 to 5 years, particularly when combined with the
application of herbicides.

In North Dakota, 2 fields were prepared for planting to native grasses by
burning once and summer fallowing for 2 years. Summer fallowing effectively
killed all aboveground vegetation. Within 2 months after drill seeding native
grasses, perennial weeds, including field bindweed, were very dense. Fields were
then sprayed with 2 applications of 2,4-D. Results of these treatments are not
given [62].

Managers at
Thousand Springs Preserve in Idaho had success controlling field bindweed in an agricultural
site undergoing restoration, using a combination of tilling and planting
competitive plants. In the 1st year the field was burned and planted with peas
and oats. After the crop was harvested in the spring, the field was tilled and
irrigated to encourage germination of weeds. Glyphosate was applied in October,
although this had little effect because it was quickly followed by a killing
frost. Native perennial bunchgrass seeds were no-till drilled in late fall, and seedlings emerged in February and March. The native grasses were irrigated
and cheatgrass was suppressed using glyphosate. Annual weeds were controlled by
mowing around the bunchgrasses. Mowing and irrigation continued for 1
year. After 5 years the perennial grasses were well established, the annual
weeds continued to persist, and the perennial weeds (e.g. field bindweed) were minor
components. Field bindweed grows most successfully only where there are irrigation leaks and
generally does poorly if not irrigated. See the review by Lyons [86]
for more details.

In a greenhouse study on the combined effects of
the bindweed gall mite (Aceria malherbae) and herbicide (2,4-DB or glyphosate) on field bindweed height
and biomass, mite feeding alone reduced field bindweed shoot biomass 37% to 48% and root biomass 46%
to 50%. Herbicide alone reduced field bindweed root biomass 25% to 52%, and combining mite feeding
with either 2,4-DB or glyphosate reduced root biomass more than mites or either
herbicide alone. Combination of bindweed gall mite with sublethal doses of
herbicide may allow for field bindweed suppression while reducing potential herbicide injury
to desirable plants and maintaining mite populations. The herbicides did not appear to
negatively affect the mites [21].

Physical/mechanical:
Removing aboveground parts of
field bindweed repeatedly to starve the roots is commonly suggested as a control method in
agricultural settings (e.g. [11,13,17]). Common methods for removing top-growth
include tillage, hoeing, cutting, or mowing. Tillage is usually not recommended for natural areas,
as it may damage
desirable vegetation and/or increase soil erosion. On rangelands or natural areas
that were previously used for agriculture, tilling may be useful for ridding
infestations. For small areas this may be done using hand-held tools, but for
large areas machinery is often required [86].

The study and use of tillage or cultivation for control of field bindweed has a long history, particularly in
the midwestern United States, as reviewed by Bell [13]. The biological basis of
this research was that field bindweed could be killed if the roots were starved by cutting
off the leaves on a regular routine. Food reserves in the surface roots (upper
12 inches (30 cm)) are rapidly depleted by cultivation, but in deep roots (6 to 8 feet
(1.8-2.4 m) deep), reserves are exhausted only after long
continued cultivation at the emergence of new sprouts. Only a small quantity of
reserves is necessary to regenerate new growth [10].

Recommendations of intensive, repeated cultivation for control of field
bindweed are common. One recommendation was to cut off field bindweed plants about 3
inches (8 cm) below soil surface "for the whole season" (15-27 cultivations,
every 8-10 days, through the spring, summer, and early fall (until frost), and
another dozen cultivations the next year). Cultivations should extend 16.5 feet (5
m) from the population boundary because of invasive roots.
Another recommendation was to cultivate 8
days after the weed re-emerges, based upon careful studies of the rhizome system
that showed that the emerging shoots relied upon food stored in the root system
for 8 days before photosynthesis started to replenish the root. For a cultivation
tool, a duckfoot sweep was the desired implement [13].

Shallow hoeing and deeper
cultivations were equally effective when made every time the 1st shoots of
field bindweed emerged. Hoeing at regular 14-day
intervals was just as effective as hoeing every 7 or 10 days. All 3 techniques
eradicated field bindweed in 2 seasons (Sherwood and Fuelkeman 1948, and Timmons and Bruns
1951, as cited by [6]). The percentage of total sugars, carbohydrates, polysaccharides, starch,
and readily available carbohydrates in field bindweed roots cultivated at 3-week intervals
was markedly lower than that found in the roots of undisturbed plants.
Additional decreases were observed in the roots in the top 12 inches (30 cm) of
plants cultivated bi-weekly and weekly [12]. The relative depletion of food reserves, supplied by underground parts of the
plant, by cultivation every 7th day as compared with cultivation every 14th day,
was calculated. From this it appears that cultivation every 14 days would
destroy a 5th more of the readily available carbohydrates and more than double
the loss of protein nitrogen in the 2 parts as compared with 2 cultivations
at intervals of 7 days in the same unit of time [46]. Caution must be
used with cultivation, because much of the root system is concentrated near the surface of the soil
[34,133,144], and mechanical tillage may cut
and disseminate root fragments [78].

At the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge on the Rio Grande in
New Mexico, 3 techniques were employed in an effort to increase native chufa (Cyperus
esculentus) tuber production: 1) mowing early in the growing season; 2) shallow
disking 30 days after wetland drawdown; and 3) periodic sustained flooding
during the growing season. There was no control in this study. Field bindweed mass (g/m2)
appeared unaffected by mowing, and appears to have decreased slightly but not
significantly (p<0.10) after disking or flooding treatments [131].

Even under cultivation, field bindweed seedlings may continue to emerge for
many seasons. After 6 weeks, a new seedling has a root system
large enough to regenerate stems if it is cut [13]. Studies by Swan [129] indicate that
field bindweed seedlings can be killed by
tillage or cutting at a depth of 4 inches (10 cm) if done within 3 weeks of emergence.

Mulches are effective for controlling field bindweed if no light reaches the
soil surface. Black plastic is recommended. Complete death of field bindweed plants under mulch
takes about 3 to 5 years [13]. Similarly, 6 to 9 weeks of solarization in
California field plots
reduced the number of field bindweed seedlings, and regrowth from established
field bindweed plants was
suppressed for 6 weeks after treatment [41].

Fire:
See Fire Management Considerations.

Biological:
Several natural enemies of field
bindweed have been identified in its home range and several tested for
host-specificity. Unfortunately, nearly all of the biocontrol agents tested so
far also eat native morning-glories in California, some of which are rare or not
abundant [13]. According to Rees and Rosenthal [108], 2 biological control
agents have been released in the U.S.:

Agent Locations released or established References
bindweed gall mite MT, TX, AB [90,108]
bindweed moth (Tyta luctuosa) released in AZ, IA, MO, OK, and TX; not recovered (i.e. not
established) [108]

Larvae and adults of the Argus tortoise beetle (Chelymorpha casidea) feed on
the leaves of members of the morning-glory family. The Argus tortoise beetle is native to the U.S. and
also occurs in Canada. In New York, it has been observed to defoliate infestations of
field bindweed and false bindweed (Calystegia sepium) completely, while
leaving the associated rye and corn crops untouched. It was being investigated as a
potential biological control agent in 1979 (Selleck 1979, as cited by [144]);
the outcome of these investigations is unknown.

Grazing: In Minnesota, domestic sheep grazing on field bindweed infested land
sown to several crops (wheat, rye, and Sudan grass) consistently eliminated
bindweed in 2 seasons, while grazing of perennial pasture mixtures consisting of
alfalfa and brome grass or reed canary grass did not eliminate bindweed in any
of 3 experiments. Grazing of pure bindweed reduced the stand somewhat, but was
much less effective than was the grazing of infested land on which crops were
being grown [122]. According to a review by Bell [13], cattle do not eat field
bindweed, sheep will eat it but do not prefer it, and pigs are the field
bindweed gourmands. Pigs will eat the whole plant, given a chance. Pigs are said
to nearly eradicate the root system of bindweed if the field is plowed before
they are let into the field. However, their snouts must be free of nose rings or
slits.

Chemical:
Herbicides commonly recommended for the control of field
bindweed include 2,4-D (alone and in combination), glyphosate, dicamba, picloram, quinclorac, and
paraquat. See the Weed control methods handbook
or the field bindweed Element Stewardship Abstract
for more information on specific chemicals, their efficacy, and recommendations for use in controlling field bindweed.

In general, herbicides should be applied when they will be most effectively
absorbed and translocated to field bindweed roots, but before plants produce seed and new
buds. The optimum time for the
application of foliar-applied herbicides is the bud to full-bloom stage which
coincides with the maximum translocation of assimilates downward and root
metabolic activity. However, the application of herbicides
in late summer, if the vines are actively growing, may also be effective [86,144].

Moisture availability may impact the effectiveness of chemicals applied for
field bindweed control. A laboratory test indicated that field bindweed is more resistant to glyphosate action
when plants are drought stressed [33]. Similarly, a
review by Meyer [93] indicates that field bindweed growing in semiarid conditions (rainfall
of 11 to 20 inches (280-500 mm)) may be more resistant to weed control efforts
(herbicides and cultural control) than field bindweed growing in more humid conditions
(rainfall >25 inches (640 mm)). This is especially apparent for foliar-applied
herbicides, possibly due to lower leaf area, thicker cuticle with higher wax
content, slower biological processes, and smaller leaf:root ratios under
semiarid conditions. But it may also be due, in part, to different cropping and
cultural practices employed in the different areas.

According to a review by Lyons [86], repeated use of the same or similar herbicides can result in
herbicide-resistant strains of field bindweed. Investigators have
unsuccessfully tried to correlate the morphology of field bindweed strains with their
herbicide resistance. When planning on
using herbicides to control field bindweed, it is useful to know whether field
bindweed strains in the
area have demonstrated any herbicide resistance [86]. Evidence of resistance of
field bindweed to 2,4-D isooctylester after 3 consecutive years
of spraying is suggested by Zengin [157]. Field bindweed 1st demonstrated resistance to 2,4-D in Kansas in 1964, and apparently,
research has shown that these particular biotypes may be resistant to other
synthetic auxin herbicides. See the International Survey of Herbicide
Resistant Weeds for more information.

Cultural:
In agricultural systems, smother crops
are often used to control invasive species such as field bindweed. Competition for light
reduces field bindweed vigor [9,13]. According to a review by
Lyons [86], light reaching field bindweed plants must be reduced to about 50% shade or more for 3
years to control field bindweed growth.

In agricultural systems suggested smother crops include millet, sorghum,
Sudan grass, or alfalfa [66,86]. Winter wheat is often a good competitor with
field bindweed because it grows rapidly during the early spring when
bindweed is not using soil moisture (Wiese and Rea 1959, as cited by [144]). Summer-planted crops that grow
vigorously and provide early shade offer competition to field bindweed at a time when it is normally making its best
growth [66].

It may be difficult to find native species that can compete effectively with
field bindweed. The outcome of competition between species can be complicated and unpredictable.
Managers at Phantom Canyon Preserve were unable to establish
native species to compete with field bindweed, while those at Thousand Springs Preserve
successfully established perennial grasses [86].

A review by Lyons [86] suggests that, in general, species that grow vigorously during the winter and early spring
may offer the best competition to field bindweed, because they force field
bindweed plants to compete
for light later in the season. Competitive crops may be most effective in
humid/shady areas where solar radiation is diminished and shading has larger
consequences (Wilson and others 1955, as cited by [86]). Therefore competitive planting or
restoration efforts in low light riparian habitats, where the available light is
reduced by tree canopies, may work to control field bindweed [86].

Very little information is available regarding the use of field bindweed by
livestock and wildlife. According to Bell [13], various research reports
published by the Experiment Stations of Kansas, Iowa, Utah and Texas from 1920
to 1952 suggest that farm animals, including sheep and pigs, were used to eat
bindweed as a control method in some places during that time, but that cattle
are "nearly useless" for this purpose (see Biological control). In Minnesota,
sheep grazed bindweed in preference to wheat, rye (Secale spp.), or Sudan grass
(Sorghum bicolor ssp. drummondii), and they grazed alfalfa
(Medicago sativa), brome grass (Bromus spp.),
or bindweed without discrimination but preferred these to reed canarygrass (Phalaris
arundinacea) [122].

Field bindweed comprised 1.7 percent of mule deer diets during the spring-summer-fall
grazing season on a central Colorado ponderosa pine-bunchgrass
range [31]. Field bindweed was found in the rumens of white-tailed deer in
summer and fall on Missouri River bottomlands in north-central Montana [1].

Palatability/nutritional value:
According to a review by Bell [13], field bindweed is highly palatable to pigs,
while sheep will eat it but do not prefer it, and cattle do not eat it.

The palatability of field bindweed for wildlife species in Montana and
Utah is rated as follows [38]:

  MT UT   
Pronghorn fair good
Elk --- good
Mule deer --- good
White-tailed deer poor good
Small mammals poor fair
Small nongame birds poor fair
Upland game birds poor fair
Waterfowl --- fair

More info for the terms: association, bog, codominant, competition, cover, forb, forbs, frequency, grassland, herbaceous, natural, shrub

Field bindweed is invasive primarily in agricultural areas, although some
authors indicate that it is also invasive in natural areas (e.g. [28,86,109]). Natural area managers are most
likely to find it in moist locations (e.g. riparian corridors and irrigated
areas) on tracts once used for agriculture [86]. Field bindweed is normally found in
open communities in association with annual, biennial, and short-lived perennial
weeds [144]. Habitats that are most like agricultural
lands (little competition, repeated disturbance, and high light intensity) are ideal for
growth of field bindweed (Cox (1915) as cited by [86]).

California: Field bindweed establishes locally in vernal pools in
Sacramento County, and in large pools in Tehama County. These habitats support populations of endangered hairy Orcutt
grass (Orcuttia pilosa) and Hoover's spurge (Chamaesyce hooveri),
and also support thriving field bindweed and cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium var. canadense) populations. Field bindweed occurs in open
annual grassland and oak savannah sites. Dominant natives include blue oak (Quercus douglasii) and chamise (Adenostoma
fasciculatum). Grassland natives include purple needlegrass (Nassella pulchra),
Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda),
California melic grass (Melica californica), small fescue (Vulpia microstachys),
and many native forbs [68]. At Sugarloaf Ridge
State Park, field bindweed is occasional in disturbed
places such as campgrounds and horse corrals [19].

In Nevada, field bindweed occurs on disturbed, moist soil of cultivated fields, near springs, roadsides, and
homesteads with pinyon (Pinus spp.), juniper (Juniperus spp.), and
saltbush (Atriplex spp.) [71].

At the Thousand Springs Preserve, Idaho, field bindweed thrives under
cultivated and irrigated conditions, and managers there suggest that field
bindweed outcompetes native grasses [86,109]. At Garden Creek Preserve in northern Idaho, managers report that
field bindweed threatens bunchgrass and forb-dominated habitats [86].

Wyoming: Olson and Gerhart [100] describe a field
bindweed vegetation type in a Wyoming riparian area with an overstory dominated by quaking aspen (Populus
tremuloides), and blue spruce (Picea pungens), and shrub layer
dominated by russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis) and willow (Salix
spp.), with rose (Rosa spp.), shrubby cinquefoil (Dasiphora floribunda),
and bog birch (Betula glandulosa) also present. They describe 2 other habitat types
with herbaceous plant communities dominated by field bindweed, bluegrass (Poa spp.),
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), and an unknown annual forb, with
coniferous overstories dominated by blue spruce, lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta), and white fir (Abies concolor).

In Colorado, field bindweed has been identified in "seemingly remote, undisturbed
aspen stands" in Rocky Mountain National Park [28]. At the Phantom
Canyon Preserve, field bindweed is most problematic in
riparian corridors and mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus spp.) shrubland/grassland [86].

Midwest: Field bindweed occurs with purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in wetland sites in the
Midwest [132]. It occurs in Theodore Roosevelt National Park in North Dakota [26], and occurs in the understory in
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) stands along the Missouri River in southeastern South Dakota [150].
Field bindweed had relatively high (compared with other regulated noxious weeds)
frequency and canopy cover on study areas in the glaciated prairie pothole
region of the Northern Great Plains [61].

Canada: Field bindweed is a dominant species in some disturbed riverbank areas in the Montréal
area of Québec. Codominant species include
common wormwood (Artemisia vulgaris), common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), and
bird vetch (Vicia cracca) [97].

More info for the terms: forb, vine

Vine-forb

Dioscorides (circa A.D. 50) recommended drinking tea made from field bindweed
seeds for 40 days to cure spleen problems, weariness, and hiccups. However, he
warned, it had the inconvenient side effects of causing one to urinate blood
after the 6th day and making one permanently sterile after the 37th (as cited by
[95]). According to Kearney and others [72], an antihemorrhagic substance has been discovered in
field bindweed, although the source of this information is not given.

Extracts from field bindweed leaves and stems show high larvacidal activity against mosquito larvae [20].

More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: adventitious, rhizome

Seeds of field bindweed germinate throughout the growing season when adequate moisture
is available, and a germination peak usually occurs in late spring or early summer.
In southern Ontario, seedlings usually emerge in early May and quickly develop a
taproot followed by lateral roots and numerous thin feeding roots.
Rapid growth of rhizomes and shoots begins when day temperatures are near 57 °F (14 °C) and night
temperatures at least 36 °F (2 °C) (Whitesides, 1979 as cited by [144]).

Flowering dates are given by area as follows:

Area Dates References
AZ May-July [72]
CA May-October [99]
FL spring-summer [153]
IL May-September [96]
NV May-September [71]
NM May-July [88]
ND June 17-July 6 [123]
TX May-July, less freely later [37]
WV June-August [127]
Blue Ridge (NC, SC, TN, VA) May-October [151]
Carolinas June-frost [106]
Great Plains June-August [54]
Intermountain June-August [30]
Northeast May-September [50]
Pacific Northwest mid-spring-late fall [65]
Baja CA April-August [149]

In southern Ontario, plants begin flowering in late June and continue as long
as conditions permit [144]. Flowers last for only one day,
opening in the morning and wilting by early afternoon [142].

Field bindweed roots and rhizomes develop
winter hardiness during autumn. The shoots are killed back to the roots by freezing temperatures, but hardened
roots will withstand temperatures
as low as 21 °F (-6
°C) [36]. Field bindweed overwinters by means of its root and rhizome system as well as by seeds on or
below the surface of the soil.

In the 2nd and subsequent years new growth arises from endogenous root
buds formed in the fall on the vertical roots and on any lateral roots that
survive
winter. The endogenous root buds, unlike adventitious buds, may remain dormant
or develop into shoots or roots.  While Davidson [34] found developing buds at all times of the year on
field bindweed
plants grown from root cuttings in Oxford, England, others suggest that
regenerative capacity of root buds varies throughout the year (e.g. [130,144]). Buds on the larger roots begin to enlarge
and develop rhizomes in early spring [144]. The
number of shoots formed from lateral root segments is greatest in early spring
and least in late summer [130]. Davison observed new shoots
emerging until late October, with those emerging after late August accounting
for half the annual radial increase in shoot emergence of 10 feet (3 m) [34].

Storage capacity of field bindweed roots and rhizomes also varies throughout
the year. The percentage of starch in
the roots reaches a maximum in August or September and thereafter rapidly
declines as it is converted to sugar. The percentage of sugars in the roots
reaches a maximum in late October and a minimum in May (Barr 1940, as cited by
[144]). The percentage of root carbohydrates is lowest at the prebloom stage of
growth (Gigax 1978, as cited by [144]).

Frazier [45] provides details on the amount, distribution, and seasonal trend
of carbohydrate and nitrogen fractions in the root system of field bindweed in Kansas. All of the carbohydrate
fractions, except the reducing sugar fraction,
reached low points in all of the root portions during the interval of 15 April to
15 May. Sugars attained a seasonal maximum the 1st of November in most parts
of the root system; starch-dextrin fraction attained maximum levels in all
root parts between mid-August and the 1st of October; the readily available
carbohydrate fraction followed the trend of the starch-dextrin fraction closely.
The general trend of the nitrogen fractions in practically all portions of the
plant showed an early season rise to 15 April (from 1 April), followed by a
decline to a low point sometime between 15 May and 15 June. See Frazier [45]
for further details.

More info for the terms: competition, litter

There is no information available regarding field bindweed response to fire.
Field bindweed probably sprouts from roots and rhizomes if top-killed by fire. Response of field bindweed populations to
fire depends on a number of factors, including
native and imposed FIRE REGIMES, site conditions (e.g. soil, moisture,
temperature), associated plant communities, management history, and disturbance
regimes at a particular site.

In a study on the effects of litter on
germination and establishment of cheatgrass and medusahead, field bindweed germinated and grew well without litter,
suggesting that field bindweed may do well in a
postfire environment. When litter was present, and with increased competition from grasses, yields of
field bindweed were
"drastically curtailed" [42].

More info for the terms: geophyte, ground residual colonizer, herb, initial off-site colonizer, rhizome, secondary colonizer, seed

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [124]:




Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil

Geophyte, growing points deep in soil

Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)

Initial off-site colonizer (off-site, initial community)

Secondary colonizer (on-site or off-site seed sources)

More info for the terms: capsule, competition, litter, natural, scarification, seed

Field bindweed reproduces both sexually and vegetatively.

Breeding system:
Field bindweed is self-incompatible [98] and thus an
obligate out-crosser, which may play an important role in maintaining the high
degree of phenotypic variation observed in this species.

Pollination:
Field bindweed flowers persist only 1 day and are insect pollinated [144]. Observations in
Kansas determined that field bindweed flowers were fully open by 8 am during
late June and early July. Nectar, produced at the base of the tube of fused
petals, attracted various pollinators including Halictid bees, honeybees, bumblebees,
butterflies, and moths. Halictid foraging was highest from 8:30 to 11:30 am. The
flowers wilted by early afternoon [142].

Seed production:
Seed production by field bindweed is variable and dependent upon environmental conditions. There is little
information on the amount and relative reproductive importance of seeds produced by
field bindweed. Literature reviews and observations over 3 years in Iowa [22] indicate that seed set
in field bindweed is favored in seasons of high temperature and low rainfall, especially on
calcareous soils. Periods of cloudy weather and fine-textured, poorly drained
soils restrict blossoming and seed production. Individual flowers may fail to
set seed or to mature seed that has been set, and capsules that appear normal
frequently contain no viable seed. Under favorable conditions the number of
seeds per capsule varies from 1 to 4 with an average of 2; however, 10
seeds per capsule have been reported from Russian material. Seed is often not produced by plants in frequently
cultivated soils. In one count, 157 capsules collected from plants in cultivated
fields yielded 41 seeds. Few estimates of seed production per plant are
available, as the spatial limit of an individual plant is often difficult to
determine due to the extensive root system. Estimates of 12 to 300 seeds per
plant are reported, and estimates of number of seeds produced per unit area in a
pure field bindweed stand range from 50,000 to 20 million seeds per hectare, though it is
unclear under what conditions these estimates were made [22,144].

According to a review by Weaver and Riley [144], field bindweed seldom sets
seed during the 1st year of growth, although plants grown in the greenhouse will
flower within 6 weeks of emergence based on unpublished data of the author.
According to Brown and Porter [22], germinability of field bindweed seeds began
10 to 15 days after pollination, when moisture content was 81%. Sripleng and Smith [120] provide a
detailed description of the anatomy and development of field bindweed seed,
and their observations suggest that field bindweed seeds mature about 25 days after
fertilization.

Seed dispersal:
Field bindweed seeds generally fall near the parent plant but can be dispersed by water [22], as contaminants in crop seed [66],
by animals after ingestion [57,104,111], by animals' feet, and by vehicles or machinery. Long-distance dispersal by birds is
possible because seeds of field bindweed can remain viable in the digestive tracts of some birds for up to 144 hours [104].

Harmon and Keim [57] tested the viability of weed seeds recovered in the
feces of several domestic animals. Field bindweed had the highest percentage
recovery and germination of all weed seeds tested, resulting in an average of
11.7% viable seeds recovered from all animals. Percent germination of field
bindweed seeds before feeding and without acid scarification, after a 2-week
germination period, was 9.3%; and with acid scarification, after a 4-week
germination period was 84%. Some data are as follows:

Animal % of 1000 field bindweed seeds recovered % germination (2 weeks, no acid treatment) % germination (4 weeks, with acid treatment)
calves 38.7 4.5 57.5
horses 10.4 11.0 60.0
domestic sheep 15.4 8.0 59.0
domestic pigs 51.2 18.0 41.0
chickens 0 -- --
average 23.1 10.4 54.4

Seed banking:
Field bindweed produces impermeable seed, giving it a physical exogenous dormancy which may or may not
be combined with other dormancy mechanisms [22,111]. A review by Rolston [111] indicates that seed longevity is often,
but not always, associated with impermeable seed, so that impermeable seeds are
distributed in time as well as space. Rolston describes in detail
the anatomy of the seed coat of field bindweed seed and other seeds with impermeable seed
coats. Seed impermeability varies with time and place of collection [22] as a result of differences in relative
humidity, temperature, light, soil fertility, and genetic factors [111].

Many impermeable seeds survive ingestion, allowing dispersal by animals and
birds (see Seed dispersal above). Under natural conditions increments of a seed
population become permeable to water and germinate in successive intervals [111]. Permeability in field
bindweed seeds is increased by various laboratory treatments,
including storage at both high 104 °F (40
°C) and low 33
°F (0.5 °C) temperatures, soaking in
concentrated H2SO4 for 45 to 60 minutes, immersion in hot
water at temperatures ranging from 126 to 212 °F
(52-100 °C), soaking in ethyl alcohol, and
mechanical scarification [22,111]. Rolston [111] speculates that in the
field, field bindweed's seed coat may be broken down or punctured by mechanical abrasion,
especially during cultivation, by passage through the digestive tract of
mammals and birds, by high temperatures or temperature fluctuations, by fire,
and possibly by microbial degradation. However, results presented
by Leishman and others [85] suggest that fungi do not play a
major role in field bindweed seed degradation. Other data indicate that as much as 48% of
impermeable field bindweed seeds may become permeable in 1 winter if the seeds are
not more than 3 inches (8 cm) deep in the soil. Impermeable seeds of field bindweed retained a
considerable degree of viability and impermeability for 4 years after burial at 6 and 18 inches
(15-46 cm) [22].

It is generally accepted that field bindweed seeds remain viable in the soil seed bank
for many years, with estimates ranging from 20 to 50 years [14,78,86,144]. Timmons [133] wrote in
1949 "the ability of seed of field bindweed,
to remain dormant in cultivated soil for a considerable time and eventually
germinate is quite generally known." Brown and Porter [22] found that as much as 62% of 50-year-old
field bindweed seeds stored and tested in the laboratory were viable, with 8% germinable, 54%
impermeable, and 38% dead. Timmons [133] observed field bindweed seedlings emerging
in a field from which field bindweed plants had been eradicated 20 years earlier,
and suggested that the seed had survived in the seed bank for those 20 years.
However, it is not clear whether there may have been seed or root fragments
imported from off-site. Timmons also observed
seedling emergence and adult plant establishment under different cropping
systems, and he concluded that completely ridding infested
land of field bindweed may require 30 years or more of persistent attention to a rigid
program of field management until all dormant seeds have been germinated and
destroyed [133]. Research is needed to better understand field
bindweed seed longevity under various field conditions, especially in natural areas.

Field bindweed was among many plants that emerged from soil samples taken from a
blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass (Bouteloua gracilis-Hesperostipa
comata-Pascopyrum smithii) mixed grass community
in eastern Montana and incubated to determine seed bank composition. It was not
reported whether adult field bindweed plants were present on the site [63].

Germination:
Differences in percent germination, impermeability, and viability have been noted for seed lots
of field bindweed collected in different years and from different sites. The mean percentage of germinable
seeds produced by field bindweed plants varies from 5% to 25%, of impermeable seeds from 60% to 80%,
and of viable seeds from 87% to 99% [22,144]. Germination of impermeable seeds can be
promoted by chemical or mechanical scarification. Seeds of field bindweed that have been scarified will
germinate over a wide range of temperatures (41 to 104
°F (5-40 °C)) with maximum and most rapid
germination at alternating temperatures of 95/68 °F
(35/20 °C) [22].
Exposure to light does not much improve germination of freshly
harvested seeds (Weaver, unpublished data cited in [144]). According
to Brown and Porter [22], exposure to both high (104
°F (40 °C)) and
low (33 °F (0.5
°C)) temperatures promotes germination in field bindweed.
Similarly, Jordan and Jordan [69] ran tests in which field
bindweed seeds were prechilled in the dark at 41°F (5
°C) for 21 to 42 days and then
moistened and germinated at 84 °F (29
°C) at 96% relative humidity, in darkness.
Percentage seed germination increased as the prechilling time increased. The
increase in germination was accompanied by morphological changes in the seed
coat, as observed with scanning electron microscopy [69].
Conversely, viability of field bindweed seed was not reduced, nor was permeability
increased, after 50 days in loosely stacked, composting chicken manure where
temperatures reached approximately 149 to 158 °F
(65-70 °C). Viability and permeability were
also unchanged after 4 months in moistened, compacted chicken manure, where
temperatures reached about 113 °F (45
°C) [125].

Over 5 years of dry storage in the laboratory at room temperature, the
percentage of germinable seeds did not vary greatly, although the average
percentage of dead seeds increased from 8% to 47% as the percentage of impermeable
seeds decreased from 87% to 38% during the 5 years. The percentage of total live
seed decreased from 87% to 49%. Germination rate averaged 31.8% in field
bindweed seeds that had overwintered in the
soil at 3 inches (8 cm) depth, an increase of 17.8% over average germination
rate (14%) in a laboratory test. Seeds buried 4 to 6 inches (10-15 cm) deep had
germination rates that ranged from 0.4% to 6.8%. Oxygen
concentrations below 10.5% and above 53% are unfavorable, and concentrations
between 21% and 53% are favorable for field bindweed seed germination. Impermeable seeds of
field bindweed were not affected by changes in the amount of oxygen [22]. Germination of field bindweed seeds
was low (mostly between 0.2% and 9%) before, during,
and after both dry storage and storage in water (up to 22 months) [23]. In a 2nd, similar study, the
percentage germination of field bindweed
seed appeared to increase with the length of time in water storage [24].

Field bindweed germinated and
established better on bare ground than on sites with litter on rangeland in
western Nevada [42].

Seedling establishment/growth:
The ability of field bindweed to establish from seed
may be underestimated. Seeds are
usually responsible for the introduction of field bindweed to a new area, and
lateral roots and rhizomes play the primary role in spreading an infestation
locally [144].

By 6 weeks after emergence a field bindweed taproot may reach a depth of 18 to 24 inches
(45-62 cm) and have 3 to 6
lateral roots, usually within 12 inches (30 cm) of the soil surface (Riley, unpublished
data as cited by [144]). Seeds of field bindweed, scarified
and planted in Iowa at 2-week intervals from
25 April to 26 September, germinated and produced seedlings at each planting. Emergence was greatest in the spring (60-75%) and late
summer (43-57%) and least in midsummer (1-10%). Roots of field bindweed seedlings emerging in the spring
and early summer penetrated to depths of 51 to 67 inches (1.3-1.7 m) by November, whereas
seedlings produced in August and September had a maximum root penetration of
10 to 20 inches (25-50 cm) [22].

In Saskatchewan, Best [16] found that 25 shoots
had emerged from a 2 inch (5 cm) root fragment 4 months after planting. The
nearest shoot was 18 inches (46 cm) from the parent plant and the furthest 52 inches
(132 cm). After 15 months a shoot was observed 114 inches (290 cm) from the
parent plant.

Frazier [47] describes, in detail, the growth of a field bindweed plant growing
in a deep silt loam soil in Kansas, under known climatic conditions, with little
or no competition (none from other plant species). The taproot rapidly
penetrated directly down from the germinating seed. Many branch roots arose
throughout the length of the taproot, a few of which grew extensively and became permanent lateral roots.
Permanent lateral roots tended to radiate away from the point of origin, thus
together occupying an area somewhat circular in shape. All shoot development was
derived from root-borne stem buds that developed on any part of the permanent
root system. Regardless of where these root-borne buds formed, if they developed
underground they gave rise to rhizomes. If the buds were borne at or above the soil
surface they gave rise to leafy shoots. By 120 weeks after emergence, practically all the vertical roots observed
penetrated the 34- to 39-inch (86-99 cm) layer. No soil layer was found in this
study that impeded vertical penetration of the roots [47]. Other descriptions of field
bindweed growth and development are available from England [34] and Nebraska [75].

Asexual regeneration:
Field bindweed reproduces vegetatively by means of endogenous root buds that develop
into rhizomes and establish new shoots upon reaching the soil surface. Root buds
at or above the soil surface develop into shoots [47,74]. Roots develop on rhizomes, allowing daughter plants to survive
if severed from the parent plant [74]. New field bindweed plants may also
develop from root fragments [16,17,75,117]

In cultivated fields and in old, well-established areas of bindweed, field
bindweed's creeping roots are often inconspicuous. Because of their slenderness and their
proximity to the surface, they are easily destroyed by cultivating tools and by
heavy freezing. New growth after cultivation is made from the vertical root
immediately below the point of injury [75]. Whenever the taproot has
become broken or cut, as in deep cultivation or plowing, the rhizomes
connect it to the growing shoots. Field bindweed rhizomes vary in
length from a few inches to several feet. Roots severed at various depths below
the soil surface often develop rhizomes several feet
in length. In many instances, old roots that have been cut off successively for
several years may produce a thousand or more slender rhizomes from the severed
end and give rise to a peculiar and striking bunchy form of leafy growth above
ground. In localities where there is a high water table, the taproot may branch
at a depth of 2 feet (0.6 m) or less, while in other localities, it may penetrate to a
depth of 10 feet (3 m) or more before branching profusely [74].
Seedlings grown in the greenhouse were regenerated from the root when
the aboveground portion was removed 19 days after emergence (Weaver, unpublished
data as cited by [144]).

Sherwood [117] conducted experiments to determine if new field
bindweed infestations could be initiated by root fragments. The larger the diameter
and/or length of the root section, the more likely it is to grow. Fragments less
than 3 inches in length were weak or failed to grow, and fragments obtained from
below the plow depth were more likely to grow than those taken from shallower
depths. Fragments from starved roots with low root reserves (i.e. roots
from plants whose top growth was prevented for a growing season) had poor
growth. Root fragments from previously disturbed plants are less
likely to grow than are those from undisturbed plants [117]. Results presented by Swan and Chancellor [130] suggest
that regeneration of field bindweed from root fragments varies by season, and is highest in
spring and lowest in late summer. Interpretation of results presented by Swan and Chancellor suggest that
regeneration is primarily from fragments of vertical roots and rhizomes (more so than
horizontal root fragments) [78].

More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [15]:





1 Northern Pacific Border

2 Cascade Mountains

3 Southern Pacific Border

4 Sierra Mountains

5 Columbia Plateau

6 Upper Basin and Range

7 Lower Basin and Range

8 Northern Rocky Mountains

9 Middle Rocky Mountains

10 Wyoming Basin

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont

14 Great Plains

15 Black Hills Uplift

16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

(key to state/province abbreviations)


UNITED STATES


AL AZ AR CA CO CT DE FL GA HI
ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD MA
MI MN MS MO MT NE NV NH NJ NM
NY NC ND OH OK OR PA RI SC SD
TN TX UT VT VA WA WV WI WY DC



CANADA
AB BC MB NB NS ON PE PQ SK



MEXICO
B.C.N.

More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: competition, forest, hardwood, litter, rhizome, seed

Field bindweed tends to be an early successional species, as it establishes well on bare
ground under open conditions. Disturbed sites are common habitat for field
bindweed
throughout its range (e.g. [37,50,96,106,127,141,146,151,153]). On a site in
western Nevada, field bindweed germinated and established better on microsites with bare
ground than on microsites with litter, and occupied
early successional stages (mostly grazing disturbance) in
some rangeland plant communities [42].

It is unclear how long field bindweed plants may persist in native plant communities.
Field bindweed plants were still present in an abandoned farm field 30 years after it was
last farmed in tallgrass mixed hardwood forest in Minnesota [59].

A review by Holm and others [66] suggests
that competition for sunlight places field bindweed at a disadvantage, and that, if adequate soil moisture is present,
several crop plants will force
it into abnormal growth and dormancy by shading. When crop plants are removed,
field bindweed resumes active growth [66]. Similarly, on a site in western
Nevada, scattered plants of field bindweed were observed growing intermixed with, but suppressed by a
medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) population. When medusahead was reduced by a variety of methods
(herbicide, disk-harrow, furrow), medusahead reduction was
followed by heavy infestations of field bindweed [155].

Bakke (1939, as cited by [9]) reports that shaded
field bindweed plants lose their prostrate habit and become twining plants. In general, the
lower the light intensity reaching field bindweed plants, the more rapid the elimination of
above- and belowground parts and the more reduction of available root
carbohydrates [9]. Dall'Armellina and Zimdahl [32] found that flower production, leaf area, and dry matter of shoots,
roots, and rhizomes
of field bindweed grown from seed declined as light level decreased. The only response
to reduced light levels of plants grown from rhizome segments was complete inhibition of rhizome
production [32]. A study by Mashhadi
and others [89] characterized the photosynthetic rate of
field bindweed under varied
light levels, measured as photosynthetic photon flux
(PPF). Field bindweed showed a linear response to PPF levels. Photosynthesis and transpiration both decreased at the
same rate in response to
decreasing PPF. There was a small amount of transpiration in darkness. The
authors also noted that field bindweed
growing under a dense juniper canopy had mostly abscised or chlorotic lower
leaves and long internodes on stems far from sunlight. They speculated that
field bindweed plants were able to establish in this low light environment
either because the leaves had adapted to low light and/or root reserves were
used to support the initial growth stages.

The competitive ability of field bindweed is due largely to its extensive root system. One
plant is able to reduce the available soil moisture in the top 24 inches (60 cm) of soil
below the "wilting point" (Wiese, unpublished data in [144]). Bakke [8] characterized the competitive
interaction between corn and field bindweed in Iowa,
noting that field bindweed is a superior competitor for water under conditions of low soil
moisture, and that corn plants growing with field bindweed were smaller and had lower
yields. How the competitive ability of field bindweed might affect successional trajectories
native plant communities is unknown.

The currently accepted name for field bindweed is Convolvulus arvensis L.
It is a member of the morning-glory family (Convolvulaceae)
[30,37,50,54,60,64,70,71,81,88,96,110,145,146,149,153].

Convolvulus arvensis, the field bindweed, is a species of bindweed that is rhizomatous and is in the morning glory family (Convolvulaceae), native to Europe and Asia. It is a climbing or creeping herbaceous perennial plant with stems growing to 0.5–2 metres (1.6–6.6 ft) in length, usually found at ground level, with small, white and pink flowers.

Other common names, mostly obsolete, include lesser bindweed, European bindweed, withy wind (in basket willow crops), perennial morning glory, small-flowered morning glory, creeping jenny, and possession vine.