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Life Expectancy

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Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
20 years.

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Benefits

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In the past, Manta birostris was commercially hunted from small boats. Currently this species is rarely hunted. The biggest impact that the manta ray currently has comes from tourism, with dive industries being created for tourists who want to swim along side these gentle giants. Inquisitive mantas will approach and even solicit attention from divers, apparently enjoying the stimulation provided by human contact and the bubbles from scuba exhaust. Although, it has been recorded that manta rays that frequently encounter humans will shy away from contact with humans.

Positive Impacts: ecotourism

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Benefits

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Manta birostris have no adverse affects on humans.

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Conservation Status

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Population sizes of Manta birostris are unknown. Because of their slow reproductive rate, they are very vulnerable to overfishing. However, there does not appear to be commercial harvesting at this time. The IUCN lists this species as "Data Deficient," meaning they don't have enough information to assess its conservation status.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: no special status

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Untitled

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The average life span of Manta birostris is 18-20 years. The Atlantic manta ray was once thought to be aggressive and harmful to humans as sailors created myths about them. The common myth was that mantas could capsize ones boat by leaping out of the water and crashing down upon it. Another common misconception is that mantas drown swimmers by wrapping around them. They are called "devil" ray because of the cephalic fins at the front of their heads, which resemble the horns of a devil. Also fishing boats reported that Atlantic manta rays would circle about their boats for long periods of time. These mantas were probably just displaying their corralling behavior during feeding.

In the past, two other species of manta, known as the "lesser" devil rays, Manta birostris (Pacific manta ray) and Manta alfredi (Prince Alfred's manta ray) were considered separate from Manta birostris. They have since been recognized as the same species, all now called M. birostris.

The name of manta is derived from the Spanish word, meaning blanket.

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Trophic Strategy

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Manta rays are filter feeders and primarily planktivores. They often slowly swim in vertical loops. Some researchers suggest this is done to keep the rays prey within the area while feeding. Their large, gaping mouths and cephalic lobes unfurled are used to corral planktonic crustaceans and small schooling fish. Manta rays filter water through their gills and organisms in the water are trapped by a filtering device, which consists of plates in the back of the mouth that are made of pinkish-brown tissue that span between the support structures of the gills. The teeth of Manta birostris are nonfunctional during feeding.

Animal Foods: fish; aquatic crustaceans; zooplankton

Foraging Behavior: filter-feeding

Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats non-insect arthropods)

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Distribution

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Manta rays are found in tropical and warm temperate coastal regions of the world's oceans, generally between 35 degrees north and south latitude, including the coasts of southern Africa, ranging from southern California to northern Peru, North Carolina to southern Brazil, and the Gulf of Mexico.

Biogeographic Regions: indian ocean (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Habitat

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Manta birostris, unlike most other rays, are found near the surface of the ocean and to depths of 120 meters. Atlantic manta rays stay closer to shore in the warmer waters where food sources are more abundant, but occasionally can be found further from shore.

Range depth: 0 to 120 m.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: pelagic ; reef ; coastal

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Morphology

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Manta rays are easily reconized in the ocean by their large pectoral "wings." Manta birostris have no caudal fins and a small dorsal fin. They have two cephalic lobes that extend from the front of the head and a broad, rectangular, terminal mouth containing small teeth exclusively in the lower jaw. The gills are located on the underside of the body. Manta rays also have a short, whip-like tail that, unlike many rays, has no sharp barb. Atlantic manta ray pups weigh 11 kg at birth and their growth is rapid, with pups virtually doubling the body width from birth through the first year of life. Manta rays show little dimorphism between the sexes with wingspan in males ranging from 5.2 - 6.1 meters and females ranging from 5.5 - 6.8 meters. The largest ever recorded was 9.1 meters. One of the distinct features of manta rays, and of the class Chondrichthyes, is that the entire skeleton is made of cartilage, which allows for a wide range of motion. These rays vary in color from black to grayish blue along the back, and a white underside with grayish blotchs that have been used to identify individual rays. The skin of manta rays is rough and scaly, like that of most sharks.

Range mass: 1200 to 1400 kg.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: female larger

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Reproduction

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Manta birostris are sexually mature at 5 years of age. The mating season of sexually mature manta rays occurs from early December to late April. Mating takes place in tropical waters (26-29 degrees Celsius), and around rocky reef areas from 10-20 meters in depth. Manta rays gather in large numbers during this season, where several males will court a single female. The males swim closely behind the tail of the female at faster than usual speeds (9-12km/h). This courtship will last for about 20-30 minutes at which point the female decreases her swimming speed and a male will grasp one side of the female's pectoral fin by biting it. He arranges his body under that of the females. The male will then insert his clasper in the cloaca of the female and insert his sperm, this usually lasting around 90-120 seconds. The male will then swim away rapidly and the next male will repeat this same process. However, after the second male the female usually swims away leaving behind the other courting males. The gestation period of Manta birostris is 13 months, after which females give birth to 1 or 2 live young. Pups are born wrapped up by their pectoral fins, but soon after become free swimmers and fend for theirselves. Manta ray pups are between 1.1 and 1.4 meters when they are born.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); viviparous

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
2190 days.

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Shuraleff II, G. 2000. "Manta birostris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Manta_birostris.html
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Gregory Shuraleff II, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Biology

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Manta rays are generally solitary, although loose aggregations of individuals may occur where there are abundant food sources or during the breeding season. When ready to mate, a male will bite his mate's pectoral fin to position himself belly-belly for copulation (3). The developing eggs remain inside the female's body for possibly as long as 12 months and hatch internally so that she gives birth to live young (2). The average litter size is two pups, and there is often a two year gap between births (2). These rays feed on planktonic organisms by filtering volumes of water through their mouths. Individuals have been observed swimming in slow vertical loops whilst feeding, possibly in an effort to concentrate prey items (2). The fleshy projections on either side of the mouth are also used to funnel prey; when not feeding, these lobes are either furled or closed in front of the mouth (2). Mantas are often host to remoras (Remorina spp.), which attach to the underside of the larger fish and consume particles of food that fall from the mouth (2). Exceptionally graceful swimmers, manta rays appear to fly through the water on their large wings. Individuals have also been observed to jump (or 'breach') clear out of the water, possibly in a form of communication or play (3).
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Conservation

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Tourism industries have sprung up in areas regularly visited by this graceful giant, which may help to preserve numbers. These practices carry their own risks however; manta rays may be distressed by close contact and can develop lesions on their skin if touched (2). Regulation of this industry will be important in allowing people to safely observe these awe-inspiring fish in the wild.
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Description

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The graceful manta ray is a stunning member of the devil ray family, if only for its sheer size. These large rays have a distinctive body shape with triangular pectoral 'wings' and paddle-like lobes extending in front of their mouths (2). They are generally dark on the upper surface, ranging from black to greyish-blue and brown, with pale undersides; individuals have a unique pattern of blotches and scars that can be used to identify them (2). The large, cavernous mouth is situated at the front of the body and contains 18 rows of teeth on the lower jaw (3).
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Habitat

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Inhabits nearshore waters, often near to coral reefs; these rays are seen near to the surface of the water or in the middle of the water column (2).
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Range

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Manta rays are found throughout the world's oceans, in tropical waters between 35° North and 35° South (3). Previously, a number of different species were recognised, but the manta ray is now considered to be just one species: Manta birostris (2).
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Status

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Classified as Near Threatened (NT) on the IUCN Red List (1).
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Threats

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Manta rays were traditionally harvested for their oil-rich livers and for their skins, which were used as an abrasive (3); these practices centred on eastern Australia and the Gulf of California (2). The small litter size and yearly intervals between births means that populations are particularly vulnerable to exploitation and in the 1990s fisheries in the Philippines and Mexico decimated local populations (2). These ocean dwellers are also at risk from accidental catch by the fishing industry although the extent of this pressure is unknown (2).
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Comprehensive Description

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The giant manta (Manta birostris) is part of the Mobulidae family, a small group of large rays that spread their wings while swimming. Manta birostris is also known as the devil ray (Allaby 2009). Its preferred habitat is tropical or subtropical waters. It is the most widely distributed manta, and has been found in three major oceans: The Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic (Kashiwagi et al. 2011).

Manta birostris has an average wingspan of 5.2 to 6.8 meters (Animal Diversity Web 2014) and an average weight of 1,350 kg (Manta Matcher 2015). It has the biggest brain mass per body mass ratio among fish in the world (Csilla et al. 2016). Each manta has dark upper sides, bright white shoulder patches, and a unique spot pattern on its under-side, centrally on the stomach (Marshall et al. 2009), making it possible to identify and trace each giant manta and study it in the wild (Town 2013). The genus Manta was thought to include one species until 2009, when Manta birostris and Manta alfredi were recognized as two separate species (Sawers and Stevens 2015).

Manta birostris live in groups and feed together on different types of plankton, small fish, and crustaceans. The Manta birostris´s lifespan is 40 years (Manta Ray of Hope 2016a). Manta birostris reaches its sexual maturity at 10-15 years of age. Its mode of reproduction is ovoviviparity. Females get pregnant once every 2-3 years, with a 12-month gestational period, and bear one live pup with each pregnancy and 10-16 pups in a lifetime (Marshall and Bennett 2010, Woodward 2009, Manta Trust 2016).

Manta birostris has only two predators in the sea, sharks and whales. The main cause for their population decline is habitat destruction, marine debris, and climate change (Manta Ray of Hope 2016a). Because of its high price on the Chinese market, where it is used as an ingredient for traditional medicinal tonics, Manta birostris has been overfished (Marshall et al. 2011). Manta meat is also highly valued; an average of 65-80 thousand kg is consumed annually (Manta Ray of Hope 2016c). A dead manta is valued at US $40–$500, depending on its size.

With environmental education and sustainable business alternatives (tourism and diving operators), local neighbors are now conservationists of this species (Peschak 2016). Dive tourism is estimated to produce US $4 million each year

In 2011, Manta birostris became part of the IUCN Red List for Endangered Species, tagged with vulnerable status. IUCN estimates sub-populations (total number of species found in different groups) of 100-1000 individuals (Marshall et al. 2011). In November of 2011, the Government of Ecuador’s proposals to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) to add Manta birostris to Appendices I and II of the treaty was approved (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 2013). The giant manta is now protected and can no longer be commercialized or traded in 116 countries.

References

  • Allaby, M. 2009. Mobulidae. Oxford Dictionary of Zoology (4 ed.). Available: www.oxfordreference.com. (Accessed: November 19, 2016).
  • Coles, R. J. 1916. Natural history notes on the devil-fish, Manta birostris (Walbaum) and Mobula olfersi (Muller). Bulletin of the AMNH 35: 649-657. Available: http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/1930. (Accessed: Nov 18, 2016).
  • Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. 2013. Consideration of Proposals for Amendment of Appendices I and II. Available: https://cites.org/sites/default/files/esp/cop/16/prop/S-CoP16-Prop-46.pdf. (Accessed: Nov 28, 2016).
  • Csilla, A., P. Dominic, and D. Agostino. 2016. Contingency checking and self-directed behaviors in giant manta rays: Do elasmobranchs have self-awareness? Journal of Ethology 34:167-174.
  • Guinness World Records. 2016. Largest ray. Available: http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/largest-ray. (Accessed: Nov 14, 2016).
  • Kashiwagi, T. A. Marshall, M. Bennet, and J. Ovenden. 2011. Habitat segregation and mosaic sympatry of the two species of manta ray in the Indian and Pacific Oceans: Manta alfredi and M. birostris. Marine Biodiversity Records 4:1-8.
  • Manta Matcher. 2015. Different species of mantas. Available: http://www.mantamatcher.org/overview.jsp (Accessed: Nov 15, 2016).
  • Manta Ray of Hope. 2016a. Reproduction and longevity. Available: http://www.mantarayofhope.com/learn/about-manta-and-mobula-rays/reproduction-and-longevity/. (Accesed: Nov 15,2016).
  • Manta Ray of Hope. 2016b. Brain size and anecdotal evidence of intelligence. Available: http://www.mantarayofhope.com/learn/about-manta-and-mobula-rays/brain-size-and-anecdotal-evidence-of-intelligence/. (Accessed: Nov 21, 2016).
  • Manta Ray of Hope. 2016c. Estimating the value of the market. Available: http://www.mantarayofhope.com/learn/markets-and-trade/estimating-the-value-of-the-market/. (Accessed: Nov 28, 2016).
  • Manta Trust. 2016. Sexual election. Available: http://www.mantatrust.org/about-mantas/sexual-selection/ (Accessed:Nov 14, 2016).
  • Marine Megafauna Foundation. 2012. Research. Available: www.marinemegafauna.org/research. (Accessed Nov 15, 2016).
  • Marshall, A., L. Compagno, and M. Bennett. 2009. Redescription of the genus Manta with resurrection of Manta alfredi (Krefft, 1868) (Chondrichthyes; Myliobatoidei; Mobulidae), Zootaxa 2301:1-28.
  • Marshall, A., M. Bennett, G. Kodja, S. Hinojosa-Alvarez, F. Galvan-Magana, M. Harding, G. Stevens, and T. Kashiwagi. 2011. Manta birostris: Assessment Information. IUCN Red List of Endangered Especies. Available: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/198921/0 (Accessed Nov 28, 2016).
  • Marshall, A. 2008. Biology and population ecology of Manta birostris in southern Mozambique. PhD thesis. The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia.
  • Marshall, A., T. Kashiwagi, M. Bennett, and J. Ovenden, J. 2012. The genetic signature of recent speciation in manta rays (Manta alfredi and M. birostris). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 64:212-218.
  • Marshall, A. and M. Bennett. 2010. Reproductive ecology of the reef manta ray Manta alfredi in southern Mozambique. Journal of Fish Biology, 77:169-190.
  • Ocean Biogeographic Information System. 2011. Manta birostris (Walbaum,1792). Available: http://www.iobis.org/explore/#/taxon/642273. (Accessed: Nov 14, 2016).
  • Peschak, T. 2016. Dive into an ocean, a photographers world. TED [video]. Available: https://www.ted.com/talks/thomas_peschak_dive_into_an_ocean_photographer_s_world. (Accessed: Nov 15,2016).
  • Proyecto Mantas Ecuador. 2012. Research and conservation. Available: www.mantasecuador.org. (Accessed: Nov 11, 2016).
  • Queen of Mantas. 2016. Research and publications. Available: http://www.queenofmantas.com/research/publications/. (Accessed: Nov 11, 2016).
  • Shuraleff II, G. 2000. Manta birostris. Animal Diversity Web. Available: animaldiversity.org/accounts/Manta_birostris/. (Accessed: Nov 18, 2016).
  • Stewart, J., E. Hoyos-Padilla, K. Kumli, and R. Rubin. 2016. Deep-water feeding and behavioral plasticity in Manta birostris revealed by archival tags and submersible observations. Zoology 119:406-413.
  • Sawers, T. and G. Stevens. 2015. The value of traditional knowledge in manta ray conservation in the Maldives. Environment Department University of York. Maldivian Manta Ray Project-Manta Trust. Available: http://www.mantatrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Manta-Trust_MMRP_Traditional-Knowledge_ThesisReport_Tam-Sawers_2014.pdf. (Accessed: Nov 14, 2016).
  • Town, C., A. Marshall, and N. Sethasathien. Manta Matcher: automated photographic identification of manta rays using key point features. Ecology and Evolution 3:1902-1914.
  • Woodward, M. (Director). 2009. The natural world: Andrea, queen of the mantas. [motion picture.] Mozambique.

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María Belén Benítez, Expo E-42c: Writing in the Sciences, Harvard University Extension School
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MantaMatcher, the Wildbook for Manta Rays

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MantaMatcher represents the first global online database for manta rays, designed specifically to manage manta ray (manta alfredi and manta birostri) sightings and identifications across their distribution.

Life Cycle

provided by Fishbase
Exhibit ovoviparity (aplacental viviparity), with embryos feeding initially on yolk, then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus, fat or protein through specialised structures (Ref. 50449). Bears up to 2 young (Ref. 5578); born at 122-127 cm WD (Ref.58048). A female of 550 cm width and weighing 1050 kg was collected in the Galapagos in June and was carrying a well-developed embryo of 12.7 kg (Ref. 28023). Size at partuition might be from 1.1 to 1.3 m and from 9.1 to 1.14 kg (Ref. 31742).Yano et al (1999) (Ref. 35892) describe the mating behavior of manta rays based on observations off Ogasawara Islands, Japan, in the following sequence:1) 'chasing', the male rapidly follows behind the tail of the female and attacks her several times;2) 'nipping', the male nips the tip of the pectoral fin of the female and then moves to the ventral surface of the female;3) 'copulating', the male inserts a clasper into the cloacaof the female and copulates abdomen-to-abdomen, up to 123 seconds;4) 'post-copulating';5) 'separating'. (Ref. 49562).
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Recorder
Cristina V. Garilao
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Diagnostic Description

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A giant ray having an extremely broad head with long head fins, and a terminal mouth; upper surface of disc covered with denticles, and tail usually without a spine (Ref. 5578). Blackish above, sometimes with white shoulder patches; white below, with grey edging on disc (Ref. 5578). Tail whiplike but short (Ref. 7251).
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Recorder
Rodolfo B. Reyes
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Migration

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Oceanodromous. Migrating within oceans typically between spawning and different feeding areas, as tunas do. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.
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Recorder
Susan M. Luna
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Trophic Strategy

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Common on coastal waters (Ref. 9137). One of the best areas to view them is around Sangalaki Island, off the northeastern coast of Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), (Ref. 54301). Mainly in near-shore waters, near coral and rocky reefs; sometimes found over deep water (Ref. 12951). Penetrates shallow muddy bays and the intertidal and occurs off river mouths (Ref. 9911). Pelagic (Ref. 58302). Occurs singly or in loose aggregations (Ref. 12951). Mainly plankton feeders, but may feed on small and moderate-sized fishes as well (Ref. 9911). A carnivore (Ref. 9137). Leaps out the water mainly in spring and autumn, possibly as part of mating behavior (Ref. 31742). Easily approached (Ref. 9911).
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Pascualita Sa-a
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Biology

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Mainly in near-shore waters, near coral and rocky reefs; sometimes found over deep water (Ref. 12951). Reported along productive coastlines with regular upwelling, oceanic island groups and offshore pinnacles and seamounts (Ref. 82755). Penetrates shallow muddy bays and the intertidal and occurs off river mouths (Ref. 9911). Pelagic (Ref. 58302). Occurs singly or in loose aggregations (Ref. 12951). Mainly plankton feeders, but may feed on small and moderate-sized fishes as well (Ref. 9911). Leaps out the water mainly in spring and autumn, possibly as part of mating behavior (Ref. 31742). Easily approached (Ref. 9911). Ovoviviparous (Ref. 6902). Commonly caught by tuna gillnet and harpoon fisheries. Utilized for its gill filter plates (very high value), meat, cartilage and skin (Ref.58048). Liver yields oil and skin used as abrasive (Ref. 6902). World's largest ray (Ref. 37816).
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Susan M. Luna
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Importance

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fisheries: minor commercial; price category: medium; price reliability: very questionable: based on ex-vessel price for species in this family
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分布

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分布於熱帶和溫帶地區。
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臺灣魚類資料庫
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利用

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罕見大型魚種,通常被捕抓鮪魚之流刺網或魚叉捕獲,具食用價值,軟骨及魚皮可製品。
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描述

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體盤極寬且角尖,體盤寬為體盤長之2.2-2.4倍。頭前具有一對像喇叭狀的鰭狀肢。眼睛位於側邊,微向腹面傾斜;眼球大,較出水孔寬約2倍;眼間隔很寬,比出水孔後緣之頭鰭前端距離為大,出水口小,橫橢圓型,寬比長約大2倍;鼻間距離等於口寬。尾短如鞭子。皮膚粗糙。嘴裂於頭部的兩鰭狀肢中間,嘴型平坦寬廣,下顎具有小型牙齒,牙齒細小,縱列約100顆以上,前列牙排列不齊,後面則較整齊緊密。鰓裂很寬,前後距離約相等,第三鰓裂寬比第五鰓裂距離大1.9倍。表皮上面呈橄欖色或黑色,下面呈白色。生活於大洋水表面處,鮮少活動於近海處。(陳柔蓉、林沛立2012/11編寫)
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棲地

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棲於底中水層,卵胎生,食底棲軟體動物、甲殼動物和魚類。
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Giant oceanic manta ray

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M. birostris swimming with a diver

The giant oceanic manta ray, giant manta ray, or oceanic manta ray (Mobula birostris) is a species of ray in the family Mobulidae, and the largest type of ray in the world. It is circumglobal and is typically found in tropical and subtropical waters, but can also be found in temperate waters.[4] Until 2017, the species was classified in the genus Manta, along with the smaller reef manta ray (Mobula alfredi). DNA testing revealed that both species are more closely related to rays of the genus Mobula than previously thought. As a result, the giant manta was renamed as Mobula birostris to reflect the new classification.[5]

Description

M. birostris with rolled up cephalic fins and characteristic dorsal coloration (Ko Hin Daeng, Thailand)
Side view of M. birostris with unfolded cephalic fins (Ko Hin Daeng, Thailand)

The giant oceanic manta ray can grow up to 9 m (30 ft) in maximum length[6] and to a disc size of 7 m (23 ft) across with a weight of about 3,000 kg (6,600 lb)[7][8] but average size commonly observed is 4.5 m (15 ft).[9] It is dorsoventrally flattened and has large, triangular pectoral fins on either side of the disc. At the front, it has a pair of cephalic fins which are forward extensions of the pectoral fins. These can be rolled up in a spiral for swimming or can be flared out to channel water into the large, forward-pointing, rectangular mouth when the animal is feeding. The teeth are in a band of 18 rows and are restricted to the central part of the lower jaw. The eyes and the spiracles are on the side of the head behind the cephalic fins, and the gill slits are on the ventral (under) surface. It has a small dorsal fin and the tail is long and whip-like. The manta ray does not have a spiny tail as do the closely related devil rays (Mobula spp.) but has a knob-like bulge at the base of its tail.[10]

The skin is smooth with a scattering of conical and ridge-shaped tubercles. The colouring of the dorsal (upper) surface is black, dark brown, or steely blue, sometimes with a few pale spots and usually with a pale edge. The ventral surface is white, sometimes with dark spots and blotches. The markings can often be used to recognise individual fish.[11] Mobula birostris is similar in appearance to Mobula alfredi and the two species may be confused as their distribution overlaps. However, there are distinguishing features.

Physical distinctions between oceanic manta ray and reef manta ray

Front of a reef manta ray (i)Mobula alfredi) with closed mouth, Raja Ampat, West Papua, Indonesia.

The oceanic manta ray is larger than the reef manta ray, 4 to 5 metres in average against 3 to 3.5 metres.[12] However, if the observed rays are young, their size can easily bring confusion. Only the colour pattern remains an effective way to distinguish them. The reef manta ray has a dark dorsal side with usually two lighter areas on top of the head, looking like a nuanced gradient of its dark dominating back coloration and whitish to greyish, the longitudinal separation between these two lighter areas forms a kind of "Y". While for the oceanic manta ray, the dorsal surface is deep dark and the two white areas are well marked without gradient effect. The line of separation between these two white areas form meanwhile a "T".

Difference can also be made by their ventral coloration, the reef manta ray has a white belly with often spots between the branchial gill slits and other spots spread across trailing edge of pectoral fins and abdominal region. The oceanic manta ray has also a white ventral coloration with spots clustered around lower region of its abdomen. Its cephalic fins, inside of its mouth and its gill slits are often black.

Distribution and habitat

The giant oceanic manta ray has a widespread distribution in tropical and temperate waters worldwide. In the Northern Hemisphere, it has been recorded as far north as southern California and New Jersey in the United States, Aomori Prefecture in Japan, the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, and the Azores in the northern Atlantic. In the Southern Hemisphere, it occurs as far south as Peru, Uruguay, South Africa, and New Zealand.[13]

It is an ocean-going species and spends most of its life far from land, travelling with the currents and migrating to areas where upwellings of nutrient-rich water increase the availability of zooplankton.[14] The oceanic manta ray is often found in association with offshore oceanic islands.[10]

Evolution

Captivity

M. birostris at Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium

There are few public aquariums with giant manta ray in captivity. Since 2009, captive manta rays have been classified as Ꮇ. alfredi and there have been no facilities to display Ꮇ. birostris for some time.

Since late 2018 it has been exhibited at Nausicaä Centre National de la Mer in France and Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in Japan.[15][16] There are also reports that they were kept at the Marine Life Park, part of the Resorts World Sentosa in Singapore.[17][18]

Biology

M. birostris at cleaning station (Ko Hin Daeng, Thailand)

When traveling in deep water, the giant oceanic manta ray swims steadily in a straight line, while further inshore it usually basks or swims idly around. Mantas may travel alone or in groups of up to 50 and sometimes associate with other fish species, as well as sea birds and marine mammals. About 27% of their diet is based on filter feeding,[19] and they will migrate to coastlines to hunt varying types of zooplankton such as copepods, mysids, shrimp, euphausiids, decapod larvae, and on occasion, varying sizes of fish.[20] When foraging, it usually swims slowly around its prey, herding the planktonic creatures into a tight group before speeding through the bunched-up organisms with its mouth open wide.[19] While feeding, the cephalic fins are spread to channel the prey into its mouth and the small particles are sifted from the water by the tissue between the gill arches. As many as 50 individual fish may gather at a single, plankton-rich feeding site.[11] Research published in 2016 proved about 73% of their diet is mesopelagic (deep water) sources including fish. Earlier assumptions about exclusively filter feeding were based on surface observations.[21]

The giant oceanic manta ray sometimes visits a cleaning station on a coral reef, where it adopts a near-stationary position for several minutes while cleaner fish consume bits of loose skin and external parasites. Such visits occur most frequently at high tide.[22] It does not rest on the seabed as do many flat fish, as it needs to swim continuously to channel water over its gills for respiration.[23]

Males become sexually mature when their disc width is about 4 m (13 ft), while females need to be about 5 m (16 ft) wide to breed. When a female is becoming receptive, one or several males may swim along behind her in a "train". During copulation, one of the males grips the female's pectoral fin with his teeth and they continue to swim with their ventral surfaces in contact. He inserts his claspers into her cloaca and these form a tube through which the sperm is pumped. The pair remains coupled together for several minutes before going their own way.[24]

The fertilized eggs develop within the female's oviduct. At first, they are enclosed in an egg case and the developing embryos feed on the yolk. After the egg hatches, the pup remains in the oviduct and receives nourishment from a milky secretion.[25] As it does not have a placental connection with its mother, the pup relies on buccal pumping to obtain oxygen.[26] The brood size is usually one but occasionally two embryos develop simultaneously. The gestation period is thought to be 12–13 months. When fully developed, the pup is 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) in disc width, weighs 9 kg (20 lb) and resembles an adult. It is expelled from the oviduct, usually near the coast, and it remains in a shallow-water environment for a few years while it grows.[11][25] Females only reproduce every two to three years. Long gestation periods and slow reproduction rates make this species highly vulnerable to shifts in population.

Brain size and intelligence

The oceanic manta has one of the largest brains, weighing up to 200 g (five to ten times larger than a whale shark brain), and the largest brain-to-mass ratio of any fish. It heats the blood going to its brain and is one of the few animals (land or sea) that might pass the mirror test, seemingly exhibiting self-awareness.[27]

Status and threats

Natural predation

M. birostris at Socorro Island
M. birostris (melanistic) at Socorro Island

Because of its large size and velocity in case of danger (24 km/h escape speed),[28] the oceanic manta ray has very few natural predators that could be fatal to it. Only large sharks and dolphins, such as the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier), the great hammerhead shark (Sphyrna mokarran), the bullshark (Carcharhinus leucas), the false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens), and the killer whale (Orcinus orca), are capable of preying on the ray. Nonlethal shark bites are very common occurrences, with a vast majority of adult individuals bearing the scars of at least one attack.[29]

Fishery

The oceanic manta ray is considered to be endangered by the IUCN’s Red List of Endangered Species because its population has decreased drastically over the last twenty years due to overfishing.[30] Because M. birostris feeds in shallow waters, there is a higher risk of them getting caught in fishing equipment, especially in surface drift gillnets and bottom set nets.[31] Whatever the type of fishing (artisanal, targeted or bycatch), the impact on a population which has a low fecundity rate, a long gestation period with mainly a single pup at a time, and a late sexual maturity can only be seriously detrimental to a species that cannot compensate for the losses over several decades.[30]

Since the 1970s,[32] fishing for manta rays has been significantly boosted by the price of their gill rakers on the traditional Chinese medicine market.[33] In Chinese culture, they are the main ingredient in a tonic that is marketed to increase immune system function and blood circulation, though there is no strong evidence that the tonic is actually beneficial to health. For this reason and others, gill rakers are sold at relatively high prices – up to $400 per kilogram – and are sold under the trade name pengyusai.[34][32] In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the giant oceanic manta ray as "Data Deficient" with the qualifier "Threatened Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.[35]

Pollution

There is also the threat of microplastics in the diets of oceanic manta rays. A 2019 study in Indonesia's Coral Triangle was performed to determine if the filter-feeding megafauna of the area were accidentally ingesting microplastics, which can be eaten by filter-feeders either directly (by ingesting layers of plastic polymers that float on the surface of the water in feeding areas) or indirectly (by eating plankton that previously ate microplastics). The results of the study provided ample evidence that filter feeders, such as oceanic manta rays, that lived in the area were regularly consuming microplastics. Though it was also proven via stool samples that some of the plastic simply passed through the digestive systems of manta rays, the discovery is a concern because microplastics create sinks for persistent organic pollutants like dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethanes (DDTs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Manta rays that consume microplastics harboring these pollutants can suffer from a variety of health effects that range from short-term negative effects such as the reduction of bacteria in their guts, or long-term effects including pollutant-induced weakening of the population's reproductive fitness over future generations, which could negatively affect population levels of the rays in the future.[36]

M. birostris are also victims of bioaccumulation in certain regions. There has been at least one study that has shown how heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, and mercury can be introduced to the marine environment via pollution and can travel up the trophic chain. For example, there was a study in Ghana that involved the testing of tissue samples from six M. birostris carcasses; all of them showed evidence of high concentrations of arsenic and mercury (about 0.155–2.321 μg/g and 0.001–0.006 μg/g respectively). While the sample size was not the most ideal, it is a first step towards further understanding the true amount of bioaccumulation that M. birostris undergoes due to human pollution. These high levels of metals can cause harm to the people who consume M. birostris, and could also cause health problems for the M. birostris species itself. More studies need to be done in order to further confirm the negative health effects of bioaccumulation on M. birostris.[37]

Climate change combined with rising temperatures, are projected to cause a 10% decrease in the global population of phytoplankton with a potential 50% decrease in tropical areas. With these reductions could come a decrease in M. birostris populations.[38]

See also

References

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  2. ^ Marshall, A.; Barreto, R.; Carlson, J.; Fernando, D.; Fordham, S.; Francis, M.P.; Derrick, D.; Herman, K.; Jabado, R.W.; Liu, K.M.; Rigby, C.L. & Romanov, E. (2022). "Mobula birostris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T198921A214397182. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
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  5. ^ White, William T; Corrigan, Shannon; Yang, Lei; Henderson, Aaron C; Bazinet, Adam L; Swofford, David L; Naylor, Gavin J P (2018-01-01). "Phylogeny of the manta and devilrays (Chondrichthyes: mobulidae), with an updated taxonomic arrangement for the family". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 182 (1): 50–75. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx018. ISSN 0024-4082.
  6. ^ Pimiento, C.; Cantalapiedra, J.L.; Shimada, K.; Field, D.J.; Smaers, J.B. (2019). "Evolutionary pathways toward gigantism in sharks and rays" (PDF). Evolution. 73 (3): 588–599. doi:10.1111/evo.13680. ISSN 1558-5646. PMID 30675721. S2CID 59224442.
  7. ^ "Giant Manta Ray caught in Batticaloa - Sri Lanka Latest News". Sri Lanka News - Newsfirst. 11 August 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  8. ^ McClain, Craig R.; Balk, Meghan A.; Benfield, Mark C.; Branch, Trevor A.; Chen, Catherine; Cosgrove, James; Dove, Alistair D.M.; Gaskins, Leo C.; Helm, Rebecca R. (2015-01-13). "Sizing ocean giants: patterns of intraspecific size variation in marine megafauna". PeerJ. 3: e715. doi:10.7717/peerj.715. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 4304853. PMID 25649000.
  9. ^ "Mantas at a Glance". Manta Trust. Archived from the original on 2013-01-03. Retrieved 2016-12-15.
  10. ^ a b Stevens, Guy (2011) "Field guide to the identification of Mobulid rays (Mobulidae)" Archived 2016-10-20 at the Wayback Machine. Manta Trust.
  11. ^ a b c Passarelli, Nancy; Piercy, Andrew. "Biological profiles: Manta birostris". Ichthyology. Florida Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2013-09-14.
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  14. ^ Luiz Jr, O. J.; Balboni, A. P.; Kodja, G.; Andrade, M.; Marum, H. (2009). "Seasonal occurrences of Manta birostris (Chondrichthyes: Mobulidae) in southeastern Brazil". Ichthyological Research. 56 (1): 96–99. doi:10.1007/s10228-008-0060-3. ISSN 1616-3915. S2CID 38384569.
  15. ^ "LA GRANDE RAIE-MANTA". Nausicaä Centre National de la Mer. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
  16. ^ "オニイトマキエイ". 美ら海生き物図鑑. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
  17. ^ Long, Wong Lee. "Singapore Academy of Corporate Management - Singapore Marine Life Park". Retrieved 2018-01-09.
  18. ^ "Top 5 Things to Do on Sentosa Island". www.marinabaysands.com. Retrieved 2018-01-09.
  19. ^ a b Ebert, D. A. (2003). Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras of California. University of California Press. pp. 230–233. ISBN 0-520-22265-2.
  20. ^ Fisheries, NOAA (2021-10-21). "Giant Manta Ray | NOAA Fisheries". NOAA. Retrieved 2021-11-11.
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  22. ^ Jaine, Fabrice R. A.; Couturier, Lydie I. E.; Weeks, Scarla J.; Townsend, Kathy A.; Bennett, Michael B.; Fiora, Kym; Richardson, Anthony J. (2012). "When giants turn up: sighting trends, environmental influences and habitat use of the manta ray Manta alfredi at a coral reef". PLOS ONE. 7 (10): e46170. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...746170J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046170. PMC 3463571. PMID 23056255. open access
  23. ^ Deakos, M. (2010). "Paired-laser photogrammetry as a simple and accurate system for measuring the body size of free-ranging manta rays Manta alfredi". Aquatic Biology. 10: 1–10. doi:10.3354/ab00258.
  24. ^ Yano, K.; Sato, F.; Takahashi, T. (1999). "Observations of mating behavior of the manta ray, Manta birostris, at the Ogasawara Islands, Japan". Ichthyological Research. 46 (3): 289–296. doi:10.1007/BF02678515. S2CID 46133983.
  25. ^ a b Marshall, A. D.; Bennett, M. B. (2010). "Reproductive ecology of the reef manta ray Manta alfredi in southern Mozambique". Journal of Fish Biology. 77 (1): 185–186. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02669.x. PMID 20646146.
  26. ^ Tomita, T.; Toda, M.; Ueda, K.; Uchida, S.; Nakaya, K. (2012). "Live-bearing manta ray: how the embryo acquires oxygen without placenta and umbilical cord". Biology Letters. 8 (5): 721–724. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0288. PMC 3440971. PMID 22675137.
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  29. ^ Marshall, A D; Bennett, M B (2010). "The frequency and effect of shark-inflicted bite injuries to the reef manta ray Manta alfredi". African Journal of Marine Science. 32 (3): 573. doi:10.2989/1814232X.2010.538152. S2CID 83559215.
  30. ^ a b "Manta Fisheries". Manta Trust. Archived from the original on 2013-01-27. Retrieved 2016-12-15.
  31. ^ Andrzejaczek, Samantha; Schallert, Robert J.; Forsberg, Kerstin; Arnoldi, Natalie S.; Cabanillas-Torpoco, Mariano; Purizaca, Wilmer; Block, Barbara A. (2021). "Reverse diel vertical movements of oceanic manta rays off the northern coast of Peru and implications for conservation". Ecological Solutions and Evidence. 2 (1): e12051. doi:10.1002/2688-8319.12051. ISSN 2688-8319. S2CID 234302600.
  32. ^ a b "Turning the tide for devil rays". IUCN. 2017-03-30. Retrieved 2021-12-03.
  33. ^ "Gill Plate Trade". Manta Trust. Archived from the original on 2016-10-25. Retrieved 2016-12-15.
  34. ^ O'Malley, Mary p; Townsend, Kathy A.; Hilton, Paul; Heinrichs, Shawn; Stewart, Joshua D. (2017). "Characterization of the trade in manta and devil ray gill plates in China and South-east Asia through trader surveys". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 27 (2): 394–413. doi:10.1002/aqc.2670. ISSN 1099-0755.
  35. ^ Duffy, Clinton A. J.; Francis, Malcolm; Dunn, M. R.; Finucci, Brit; Ford, Richard; Hitchmough, Rod; Rolfe, Jeremy (2018). Conservation status of New Zealand chondrichthyans (chimaeras, sharks and rays), 2016 (PDF). Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation. p. 10. ISBN 9781988514628. OCLC 1042901090.
  36. ^ Germanov, Elitza S.; Marshall, Andrea D.; Hendrawan, I. Gede; Admiraal, Ryan; Rohner, Christoph A.; Argeswara, Janis; Wulandari, Raka; Himawan, Mahardika R.; Loneragan, Neil R. (2019). "Microplastics on the Menu: Plastics Pollute Indonesian Manta Ray and Whale Shark Feeding Grounds". Frontiers in Marine Science. 6: 679. doi:10.3389/fmars.2019.00679. ISSN 2296-7745.
  37. ^ Essumang, D. K. (2009-10-01). "Analysis and Human Health Risk Assessment of Arsenic, Cadmium, and Mercury in Manta Birostris (Manta Ray) Caught Along the Ghanaian Coastline". Human and Ecological Risk Assessment. 15 (5): 985–998. doi:10.1080/10807030903153451. ISSN 1080-7039. S2CID 83551624.
  38. ^ "Mantas in a Climate Crisis". Manta Trust. Retrieved 2021-12-03.

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Giant oceanic manta ray: Brief Summary

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M. birostris swimming with a diver

The giant oceanic manta ray, giant manta ray, or oceanic manta ray (Mobula birostris) is a species of ray in the family Mobulidae, and the largest type of ray in the world. It is circumglobal and is typically found in tropical and subtropical waters, but can also be found in temperate waters. Until 2017, the species was classified in the genus Manta, along with the smaller reef manta ray (Mobula alfredi). DNA testing revealed that both species are more closely related to rays of the genus Mobula than previously thought. As a result, the giant manta was renamed as Mobula birostris to reflect the new classification.

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