dcsimg

Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: fire severity, forest, presence, severity, wildfire

Very few studies assess the recovery of black ash on burned sites. This may be
because the wet niches occupied by black ash do not burn often. Following a
mid-May fire near Tower, Minnesota, in 1992, burned sites were compared to nearby
harvested sites. Logged sites were within 9.3 miles (15 km) of the burned sites and matched
burned sites "to the extent possible." The fire burned in quaking
aspen-dominated woodlands, but fire severity was not reported. Black ash made up
13% of the total number of live trees on burned sites sampled in the
summer of 1994. However, black ash was not among the 9 living species
on logged sites. Without predisturbance data, it is not possible to say that
black ash fared better on burned than logged sites [109].

In northern Cook County, Minnesota, an August wildfire burned in a 73-year-old
jack pine (Pinus banksiana)-black spruce forest. Severity of the fire was
not reported, but researchers noted that black ash was present in the
forests before and after the fire. Researchers took no measurements or made no
estimates of black ash's pre- or postfire distribution [6].


In riparian areas northeast of Thunder Bay, Ontario, the presence of black
ash was a significant (p=0.05) indicator of sites adjacent to areas burned in 1999.
The fire did little damage to riparian vegetation but "consumed"
all but a few remnant trees in the upland boreal mixed woods and
conifer-dominated forests. Black ash occurred on just 7% of sampled sites, so
statistical significance may be related to the fire's clearing effect but may be
what the authors describe as "a statistical artifact" [74].

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bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: swamp

black ash



basket ash

swamp ash
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Conservation Status

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Black ash is listed as an endangered species in North Dakota. It is
considered "imperiled because of rarity or because of other factors making it
very vulnerable to extirpation from the state." This status typically
describes species with "6 to 20 occurrences or few (1,000-3,000) remaining
individuals" [87]. In Delaware, black ash is
a "conservation concern." There are 6 to 20 "known occurrences or
populations." Black ash may be susceptible to extinction from the state [82].
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cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Description

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: fruit, perfect, seed, tree

This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology,
and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available
[20,51,85,101,110,118,121,141].

Black ash is a native tree described by some as the "slenderest broadleaf tree in the
forest" [26]. Black ash is normally a small tree just 40 to
60 feet (12-18 m) tall but can reach 90 feet (27 m) in height [26,59]. Branches do not
appear until high up on the trunk; tall trees may be
without branches for up to 50 feet (15 m) [26,118]. The
narrow trunk is rarely more than 2 feet (0.6 m) in diameter and is often leaning or bent
[59]. Black ash bark is soft with shallow grooves that give a scaly or
flaky appearance [20,51,59,118].
The shallow, spreading black ash root system makes this species prone to
windthrow [39,59]. Fine roots that measure between
0.1 and 0.4 mm in diameter are long and rarely branch [23]. A discussion of black ash mycorrhizal root associations is
available [80], as is an in-depth investigation of the
microscopic appearance of black ash roots that may be useful in identification [23].


The perfect and/or unisexual black ash flowers are described as tightly packed
panicles or racemes and arise from leaf scar axils produced the previous year
[20,51]. The opposite leaves are 10 to 16 inches (25-40 cm) long and pinnately
compound [51,59,110,118]. Leaflets often occur in groups of 9 but may number 7
or 11. They measure 2 to 8 inches (5-20 cm) long by 0.6 to 2.4 inches (1.5-6 cm)
wide [20,51,59,118,121]. The black ash fruit is a sometimes twisted samara most
often containing 1 seed but sometimes containing 2 or 3 seeds [20,51,110]. The fruit measures 1 to
1.5 inches (2.5-4 cm) long and is produced in clusters [59,112,118,121]. Often fruits have a
spicy odor [112].


Life span:
Black ash is a long-lived tree with a relatively rapid growth rate [122]. Heinselman [57] suggests that the typical life span
of black ash is 150 years. However, many black ash trees on the edges of Lake Duparquet in northwestern Quebec
were over 200 years old, and the oldest tree in the area was 319 years old
[127]. In northeastern Minnesota, several black ash trees in relatively pure stands were 250 year old.
At 100 years old, black ash trees can be between 39 and 75 feet (12-23 m).
Height is not well correlated with age when trees are more than 80 to 100 years old [71].

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bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Distribution

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Black ash occurs in many northeastern U.S. states and in several of Canada's eastern provinces.
The northernmost portion of black ash's range extends from
Newfoundland to southeastern Manitoba [118]. Populations in North
Dakota mark the westernmost distribution. Black ash occupies habitat in all of the Great Lake
states and reaches its southern limit in northern Virginia [51,118].The U.S. Geological Survey provides a distributional map of black ash.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Fire Ecology

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: adventitious, cover, fire cycle, fire regime, forest, fuel, hardwood, presettlement fire regime, swamp

Fire adaptations:
In reviews, black ash is described as a "vigorous sprouter" following fire, browsing, or cutting.
Sprouts are produced from adventitious buds on the sides of stumps or the
root crowns [39,112]. Black ash may also survive
some fires, as fire scars were noted on trees in the Lake Duparquet area of
Quebec [124,127].

FIRE REGIMES:
There are widely different fire frequencies reported for black ash habitats, and
often times black ash occupies small niches that may or may not burn when most
of the forested area experiences fire. Tubbs [130] considers fires
rare in the northern hardwood forests of the
north-central United States. Wade and others [135] report that the black ash forest cover
type burned in mixed and stand replacing fires at 35- to 200-year frequencies.
However, on poorly-drained sites within northwestern Ohio's Black Swamp,
where black ash occurs, the estimated fire return interval is
greater than 600 years [17].

Bergeron [13] reconstructed the presettlement fire regime
for boreal forests along the lakeshores and on islands of Lake Duparquet in northwestern Quebec from
early historical records and fire
scar data. In these boreal forests, the fire cycle
has increased since the late 1800s. Ash forests occurred only on
lakeshores and made up 6.7% of the area surveyed. The last fire in ash forests
occurred an estimated 183 years prior to the study [13].

Black ash is typical of boreal forests surrounding the Great Lakes. These
forests experience "short fire return interval crown fires and/or severe surface
FIRE REGIMES." Fires occur at 50- to 100-year intervals and are typically large (1,000-10,000 acres).
Extreme drought conditions are necessary to fuel fires and occur at 20- to 30-year
intervals. Heinselman [57] suggests that the fire return interval increases
in more eastern forests that receive higher levels of precipitation.

From charcoal records collected in the Lake of the Clouds in the Boundary
Waters Canoe Area, where black ash occurs, Swain [123] conservatively
estimates the mean fire return interval for the past 1,000 years at 70 to 80 years
and indicates that changes in the vegetation following fire were short lived (20-30 years).

From historic records including bearing trees, line descriptions, plat
maps, and township summaries from Michigan's Lower Peninsula, the fire cycle
in swamp forests where black ash is typical was an estimated 3000 years [136].

The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities
and ecosystems where black ash is important. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years)
maple-beech-birch Acer-Fagus-Betula spp. >1,000
silver maple-American elm Acer saccharinum-Ulmus americana <5 to 200
sugar maple A. saccharum >1,000
sugar maple-basswood A.saccharum-Tilia americana >1,000
sugarberry-America elm-green ash Celtis laevigata-Ulmus americana-Fraxinus pennsylvanica <35 to 200
beech-sugar maple Fagus spp.-Acer saccharum >1,000
black ash Fraxinus nigra 135]
tamarack Larix laricina 35-200 [94]
yellow-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera <35 [135]
Great Lakes spruce-fir Picea-Abies spp. 35 to >200
northeastern spruce-fir Picea-Abies spp. 35-200
black spruce P. mariana 35-200
conifer bog* P. mariana-Larix laricina 35-200 [37]
eastern white pine Pinus strobus 35-200
eastern white pine-eastern hemlock P. strobus-Tsuga canadensis 35-200
eastern white pine-northern red oak-red maple P. strobus-Quercus rubra-Acer rubrum 35-200
sycamore-sweetgum-American elm Platanus occidentalis-Liquidambar styraciflua-Ulmus americana <35 to 200 [135]
eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides <35 to 200 [94]
aspen-birch P. tremuloides-Betula papyrifera 35-200 [37,135]
black cherry-sugar maple Prunus serotina-Acer saccharum >1,000
oak-hickory Quercus-Carya spp. <35
northeastern oak-pine Quercus-Pinus spp. 10 to <35 [135]
oak-gum-cypress Quercus-Nyssa-spp.-Taxodium distichum 35 to >200 [86]
northern pin oak Quercus ellipsoidalis <35
bur oak Q. macrocarpa <10 [135]
oak savanna Q. macrocarpa/Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 2-14 [94,135]
eastern hemlock-yellow birch Tsuga canadensis-Betula alleghaniensis >200 [135]
elm-ash-cottonwood Ulmus-Fraxinus-Populus spp. <35 to 200 [37,135]


*fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species review
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bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Fire Management Considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
The fire effects information on black ash is limited. The
use of fire or protection from fire for the management of black ash requires more information
than is available at this time. Any information on pre- and postfire
vegetation characteristics for black ash would be valuable to land managers.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

RAUNKIAER [95] LIFE FORM:



Phanerophyte
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Habitat characteristics

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: cover, cover type, hardwood, minerotrophic, peat, peatland, swamp

Black ash occupies poorly drained swamps, bogs, woodlands, gullies, depressions,
lowlands, foothills, valley flats, and stream and lake shores throughout its
range [20,26,51,104,118]. In Michigan, black ash is found on shady soggy sites, with moderate
nutrient levels, where the weather is cool [19]. Black ash is described in
swamps and wet woodlands of Virginia's Blue Ridge Province [141]. In
the southern boreal region of Quebec, black ash occurs on floodplains, lowest
elevation terraces, and depositional flats with mineral
soils [35]. In Minnesota's Glacial Lake Agassiz region, black ash
populates peatland margins receiving minerotrophic waters [56].

Soils:
Black ash grows on moist to wet, deep, fertile, mineral or organic
soils [26]. Mottles and gleys are typical of soils supporting black
ash (referenced in [112]).
Soils associated with the black ash-American elm-red maple cover type are wet mucks
or shallow peat soils that are frequently
acidic with mid-levels of nutrients [104]. In hardwood and mixed
hardwood vegetation types of Manitoba, black ash dominates the overstory. This vegetation
occupies deep, fine, loamy-clay soils with poor to very poor drainage along
small river floodplains [146].


Excessive moisture is tolerated by black ash [62], and growth is considered
best on sites receiving moving, aerated water with soil pH values between 4.4 and 8.2
[143]. On Quebec's Lake Duparquet floodplain, where black ash
occurs in pure stands, flooding records from 1915 to 1991 indicate that flooding
occurs between April 7 and July 13. Flooding
conditions last an average of 24 days and range between 0 and 65 days [127].


Several areas report more specific soil characteristics for black ash
habitats. In southeastern Wisconsin, the relative importance of black ash
is significantly ( p<0.05) greater on basin sites than floodplain sites. The basin
site soils had significantly lower (p<0.0001) pH and significantly higher
organic matter, calcium, and magnesium levels than floodplain soils [38]. In the Lake
Agassiz Peatlands of Minnesota, black ash grows in
rich swamp forests where the pH is 6 to 6.5, calcium and magnesium
concentrations are high, and the moderately decomposed peat layer can be 1 to 6 feet
(0.3-1.8 m) deep [55].
Northern Lower Michigan's black ash-alder swamps have an organic matter depth of
16±9 (s) inches (40±22
cm). The pH is 7.3±0.5 (4 inches (10 cm) below soil surface) and calcium and magnesium
concentrations are 55.8±7.2 ppm and 20.6±3 ppm, respectively [145].
In alder swamps of Chippewa County, Michigan, where black ash
occurs, soils are described as black mucks. These soils have a 10- to 11-inch-
(26-28 cm) deep organic layer, pH levels between
6.4 and 6.8, and dissolved oxygen levels of 1.9/mg to 2.0/mg. These alder swamps
remained wet until mid-July during the study [92].


Elevation:
Very few areas report black ash elevation tolerances. Kudish
[70] indicated that black ash occurs between 100 and 2,800 feet (31-853 m) in
the Adirondack uplands of New York. In a review, researchers suggest that black
ash occupies sites from sea level to the highest elevations in the northern part
of its range; in the southern portion of black ash's range it is restricted to
elevations above 2,000 feet (610 m) [143].


Weather:
Black ash grows in regions with continental climates. Wright
[143] described black ash habitats as humid, receiving between 20 and 45 inches (510-1,140 mm) of
precipitation annually, having average
low January temperatures of 0 to 32 °F (-18
to 0 °C), reaching an average high temperature of 70
°F (21 °C)
in July, receiving annual snowfall levels of 30 to 100 inches (760-2,540 mm), and
typically having 80 to 180 frost-free days [143].


Some suggest that weather events during the
previous and current year's growing season of black ash are significantly (p<0.05) related to radial growth.
In the Lake Duparquet region of northwestern Quebec, researchers found that
April and May temperatures and August precipitation in the previous year positively
affected radial growth in black ash. However, precipitation in
the previous April, May, June, and October was negatively associated with
radial growth. In the same growing year, April temperature and June
precipitation were positively correlated with radial growth, but July
precipitation was negatively correlated with black ash radial growth [125].
Information was slightly different when flooded and nonflooded
sites were compared. On floodplain sites, growth was not generally affected by
temperature, but precipitation in the previous year's August and June and
the current year's December positively affected radial growth. On nonflooded sites,
radial growth was negatively correlated with the previous year's August temperatures and the
same year's May temperatures. The aforementioned relationships were significant
(p<0.05) [126].

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bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Habitat: Cover Types

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

SAF COVER TYPES [40]:





5 Balsam fir

12 Black spruce

13 Black spruce-tamarack

14 Northern pin oak

16 Aspen

17 Pin cherry

18 Paper birch

19 Gray birch-red maple

21 Eastern white pine

23 Eastern hemlock

24 Hemlock-yellow birch

25 Sugar maple-beech-yellow birch

26 Sugar maple-basswood

27 Sugar maple

28 Black cherry-maple

30 Red spruce-yellow birch

31 Red spruce-sugar maple-beech

32 Red spruce

33 Red spruce-balsam fir

34 Red spruce-Fraser fir

35 Paper birch-red spruce-balsam fir

37 Northern white-cedar

38 Tamarack

39 Black ash-American elm-red maple

42 Bur oak

57 Yellow-poplar

58 Yellow-poplar-eastern hemlock

59 Yellow-poplar-white oak-northern red oak

60 Beech-sugar maple

61 River birch-sycamore

62 Silver maple-American elm

63 Cottonwood

64 Sassafras-persimmon

65 Pin oak-sweetgum

87 Sweetgum-yellow-poplar

93 Sugarberry-American elm-green ash

94 Sycamore-sweetgum-American elm

107 White spruce

108 Red maple

203 Balsam poplar

236 Bur oak

252 Paper birch

253 Black spruce-white spruce
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bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Habitat: Ecosystem

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

ECOSYSTEMS [44]:





FRES11 Spruce-fir

FRES15 Oak-hickory

FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood

FRES18 Maple-beech-birch

FRES19 Aspen-birch
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bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Habitat: Plant Associations

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the terms: bog, forest

KUCHLER [69] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:





K081 Oak savanna

K093 Great Lakes spruce-fir forest

K094 Conifer bog

K096 Northeastern spruce-fir forest

K097 Southeastern spruce-fir forest

K098 Northern floodplain forest

K099 Maple-basswood forest

K100 Oak-hickory forest

K101 Elm-ash forest

K102 Beech-maple forest

K103 Mixed mesophytic forest

K104 Appalachian oak forest

K106 Northern hardwoods

K107 Northern hardwoods-fir forest

K108 Northern hardwoods-spruce forest

K109 Transition between K104 and K106
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bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Habitat: Rangeland Cover Types

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the term: cover

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [111]:




None
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bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Immediate Effect of Fire

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
The literature suggests that black ash is fire sensitive [53] and is
top-killed by even moderate-severity surface fires [57]. However,
fire-scarred black ash trees were reported outside of the Lake Duparquet
floodplain in northwestern
Quebec and likely survived a 1944 fire [124,127].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: cover, fen, fresh, habitat type, hardwood, herbaceous, litter, natural, presence, seed, swamp, tree

While not recognized as an important food source for wildlife, black
ash is utilized in small quantities by a variety of animals. In a review, black
ash is recognized as an important seed source for game birds, songbirds, and
small animals, and is utilized as browse by white-tailed deer and moose [143].

Native ungulates:
Both moose and white-tailed deer utilize black ash. Utilization by moose increased with
their population increases. During the dormant season (mid-September through mid-May),
black ash is low preference browse for moose in the
Lake Superior region [5]. On Isle Royale in Michigan, black ash made up
0.4% of available browse and made up 0.1% of moose winter diets [3]. After compiling
findings from 13 browse surveys done in northern
Ontario, Cumming [29] found that black ash comprised less than 1% of moose
diets.

On Isle Royale in the sugar maple-yellow birch vegetation type, black ash
comprised 2.4% of moose summer diets in 1946. The average degree of black ash
browsing on the main island was 13% in 1945, 15% in
1948, 0 in 1950, 22% in 1961, 5% in 1965, and 9% in 1970. Decreased browsing
from 1948 to 1950 corresponded to substantial moose die-off;
moose populations were increasing from 1950 to 1961 [67].

Utilization of black ash by white-tailed deer likely depends on
its availability. In reviews, Sims and others [112] consider black
ash important white-tailed deer browse, and Erdmann and others [39] indicate
that black ash seedlings and sprouts are readily browsed by white-tailed deer in the Great
Lake states. However, in Cook County,
Minnesota, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, black ash is not widely distributed in
white-tailed deer wintering areas and is not important browse [2].

Studies indicate that black ash tolerates heavy browsing. Following heavy clipping (complete utilization of
the season's growth) of stems in Cook County, Minnesota, black ash
increased output by 19% by the time researchers clipped plants the next year. Output increased by over 300% in
successive clippings. Both the number of twigs and the average length of twigs increased with
clipping [2]. Erdmann and others [39] in a review suggest that black
ash trees can withstand even heavy winter browsing.

Other large mammals:
Black ash habitats are used seasonally by both American black bears and bobcats.
The presence of black ash may indicate valuable feeding sites for
American black bears in the Great Lakes region. The lowland grasses and
herbaceous vegetation associated with black ash swamps are a primary early spring
(April-May) food [99,100]. Lovallo and Anderson [79]
found that female bobcats selected lowland deciduous forests as habitat in
northwestern Wisconsin in the summer and the winter. Black ash and alder (Alnus
spp.) dominated the lowland forests.

Small mammals:
American beavers, rabbits, and
other small mammals occasionally feed on black ash bark and stems. In Michigan's Upper
Peninsula, American beavers infrequently utilized black ash as a winter food source;
however, in North Dakota the small twigs and bark of black ash are preferred
by American beaver [76]. On Mantioulin Island, Ontario, snowshoe hare use of
black ash was low in the winter season. Five percent of available stems were
browsed [34]. In a guide to growing black ash in the Maritime Provinces, authors
suggest the use of poison-grain mouse-bait stations in plantations to discourage mice
from girdling stems [77].

Birds:
Although few studies highlight
specific links between birds and black ash, it is likely that the wetland
habitats occupied by black ash are attractive to many bird species. It is also
likely that birds feed on black ash seeds. Black ash was one of many species
investigated in a caloric content study of seeds eaten by birds [66]. In Aitkin County, north-central
Minnesota, 2 of 14 located great gray owl nests were found in black ash trees [115].
Black ash habitats are important ruffed grouse roosting and brooding areas. Ruffed grouse used
black ash-dominated swamp
hardwoods as winter habitat. Swamp hardwoods made up 19% of the winter habitat use (number of
plots with roosts/total number of plots of this cover type), and an average of 1.3 roosts/plot
were found in black ash-dominated swamps. In the hot summer months, swamps are important brood habitat
[36].

Amphibians:
Researchers found several frog species in balsam fir-black ash forests of Itasca State Park, Minnesota.
Researchers found a total of 855 frogs throughout the 5 years of field studies
conducted in mid-August. Of the 855 frogs, 270 occurred in the balsam fir-black
ash habitat type. Microclimates, vegetation type and coverage, as well as
potential escape areas likely affected habitat choice. The frog species found in
the balsam fir-black ash habitat type are shown below [81]:

Species

Number found in balsam fir-black ash habitat type

Total number found

% of total found in balsam fir-black ash habitat type


wood frog 185 372 49.7
spring peeper 29 61 47.5
swamp tree frog 44 75 58.7
tree frog 6 11 54.5
American toad 1 1 100

Palatability/nutritional value:
Nutritional contents are reported for black ash seed, wood, and litter.
Black ash seed collected near Champaign, Illinois, from November through March of
1954 to 1959 contained an average of 5,625 gram-calories/gram [66].
Researchers in Wisconsin found that the in-vitro dry matter digestibility of
black ash wood was 17% and bark was 45%.
Free sugars and sugars after hydrolysis made up 6.5% and 10%, respectively, of
the carbohydrates in black ash extract [84]. Fresh black ash litter collected over a
2-year period from a marginal fen in Minnesota's Cedar Creek Natural History Area contained
4,376 g cal/g dry weight and 4,714 g cal/g ash-free
weight. The dominant trees
in the study area were 35 to 45 years old. The nutrient content of the fresh
black ash litter
is summarized below [96]:

Ash (%)*
Calcium (%)
Magnesium (%)
Nitrogen (%)
Phosphorus (%)
7.16 2.69 0.56 2.14 0.14

*oven-dry weight

In a review, Blinn and Buckner [15] report the following foliar nutrient
levels for black ash:

Nitrogen* (%)
Phosphorus (%)
Potassium (%)
Calcium (%)
Magnesium (%)
2.11 0.17 2.7 2.01 0.47

*oven-dry weight

Aluminum (ppm)
Boron (ppm)
Copper (ppm)
Iron (ppm)
Manganese (ppm)
Molybdenum (ppm)
Zinc (ppm)
216 29 20 288 96 2.7 25

Cover value: Black ash-red maple
hardwood swamps are important winter range for white-tailed deer in northern
Wisconsin and typically support high deer numbers [25].
A study of bobcat food availability suggests that lowland deciduous habitats dominated
by black ash of northwestern Wisconsin are home to several rodent species. In
lowland deciduous forests, 3.9 voles, 0.87 mice, 0.87 shrews, and 0.87 chipmunk were
captured per 100 trap nights [79].
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Key Plant Community Associations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: basal area, bog, climax, codominant, cover, cover type, forest, frequency, grassland, habitat type, hardwood, marsh, organic soils, peatland, presence, succession, swamp, tree

Black ash is recognized as a dominant species in the following vegetation
classifications:


IL: Horseshoe Bottom Nature Preserve [75]

MI: northern Lower [145]

MN: Voyageur National Park [72]

Northeastern U.S.: [47,104]

WI: [30]

MB: [146]

NS: Saint Lawrence River Valley [32]

southeastern Canada: [47,104]


American elm (Ulmus americana) is listed as a codominant in many black
ash habitat and community type descriptions. It is important to note that many
American elm populations declined considerably following the
introduction of Dutch elm disease in the early 1930s. Some black ash habitat types and community
descriptions are from dated literature, and the presence of American elm may be
exaggerated in studies that predate population losses to Dutch elm disease.

Black ash-American elm-red maple forest cover type: The black ash-American elm-red maple
(Acer rubrum) forest cover type
occurs throughout the northeastern United States and eastern Canada. Of the 3 major species, black
ash is most restricted to this vegetation type. In the Great Lake states and
the western Canadian Range, balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera ssp.
balsamifera), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), and yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis) are common to this cover type. Silver maple (Acer saccharinum), swamp white oak (Quercus
bicolor), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), pin oak (Q. palustris), black tupelo (Nyssa
sylvatica), and eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp.
deltoides) are typical of the black ash-American elm-red maple forests of northern Ohio and Indiana. In
New England and eastern Canada, sweet
birch (B. lenta), paper birch (B. papyrifera), gray birch (B.
populifolia), silver maple, and black spruce (Picea mariana) are
common. The cover type in New York is habitat for white ash (Fraxinus
americana), slippery elm (U. rubra), rock elm (U. thomasii), yellow birch,
black tupelo, sycamore, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis),
and bur oak (Q. macrocarpa) [104]. The black ash-American elm-red
maple cover type in northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan is
dominated by black ash. On very poorly drained sites, stands are almost pure black ash,
and black ash is considered a climax species [39].


Northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada:
Black ash is common to many
deciduous, coniferous, and mixed lowland forest types in the eastern U.S. and
Canada.


In the northern Great Lake states, the greatest black ash biomass production is
reported for elm-ash-maple (Ulmus-Fraxinus-Acer spp.) forests.
Black ash biomass yields are 2nd greatest in northern white-cedar
(Thuja occidentalis) forests and 3rd greatest in balsam fir forests [113]. Tamarack (Larix laricina),
balsam fir, northern white-cedar, and red maple are found with black ash in
lowland spruce-fir forests of New England, the Great Lake states, and the boreal
region of Canada [12,42]. Black spruce-speckled alder (Alnus rugosa)
communities are typical of water-logged soils
in eastern Canada, the northern Great Lake states, and Maine [31]. Red spruce (P. rubens)-balsam fir
vegetation types extending
as far south as West Virginia and as far north as maritime provinces of Canada
may include black ash trees [52].


Black ash usually comprises less than 20% of the basal area in sugar maple
(Acer saccharum)-dominated vegetation in the
Great Lake states, New York, New England, Ontario, Quebec, and portions of the
Appalachians. In eastern Canada, black ash
occupies sugar maple-yellow birch habitats [48]. In northern Wisconsin, upper Michigan, southern Ontario, and southern Quebec
black ash is a "less common associate" of the eastern hemlock-yellow birch vegetation type
that grades into black ash-American elm-red maple forests on wetter sites [47].


In wet calcareous mixed woods of the maritime provinces, black ash is dominant,
and eastern white-cedar and red maple are both typical. These forests occur on
poorly drained
organic soils. In the early 1800s, black ash occurred in these
forests with 6.5% frequency, but in 1993 the frequency of ash was less than 1%. Land clearing,
wetland drainage, and tree harvest practices of European settlers are at
least partially responsible for the decline in black ash habitat [78].


Illinois: Black ash is common in Illinois' seep and swamp vegetation where silver maple
and green ash (F. pennsylvanica) are also typical [75].


Michigan: In northern Lower Michigan, seasonally flooded black ash-alder (Alnus
spp.) swamps experience extreme daily and seasonal temperature changes. Black ash also occupies hardwood swamps
where basswood (Tilia americana) and northern white-cedar are typical.
Hardwood swamps are also seasonally flooded but do not occur in frost pockets. The
basal area of black ash in black ash-alder swamps is 7.1±13.1
(s) m²/ha and in hardwood swamps is 6.1±6 m²/ha [145].

In the Indian Bowl area of southwestern Michigan, black ash occurs in tamarack swamps,
thought to be an earlier stage of succession to southern hardwood forest. The Indian Bowl is
frequently flooded, has organic soils high in calcium, and occupies elevations
of 600 to 750 feet (183-229 m) [68]. On the Isle Royale, black ash occurs in 40-year-old
paper birch-aspen (Populus spp.)-white spruce (Picea glauca)
stands that revegetated burned areas after a late July fire in 1963 [54].


Minnesota: In Voyageurs National Park, researchers recognize 2 vegetation
types dominated by black ash. The black ash-elm/trillium
(Trillium ssp.) type occupies moist sites, with deep nutrient-rich
soils. This type is uncommon but is considered climax. The black ash/yellow
marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) habitat
type is a climax type on sites that are better drained
than those occupied by black ash-elm/trillium [72]. Buell and
Bormann [24] recognize a stable basswood-balsam fir-black ash vegetation type
on poorly drained sites of Minnesota's Red Lake Indian Reservation.


In the Lake Agassiz Peatlands of Minnesota, black ash dominates the
overstory of swamp forests that lie on peatland edges and receive mineral-rich
water. Other typical species may include northern
white-cedar, tamarack, black spruce, and speckled alder [55]. In
the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, black ash occurs with low frequencies in balsam fir-paper birch and
red maple-quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)-paper birch communities [88].


New York: Black ash is common in swamps and on floodplains of New
York. In the Adirondacks, black ash occurs in black spruce swamps. Small
northern white-cedar, tamarack, and red maple trees also populate these
sites [10]. Red maple dominates the hardwood swamps
in poorly drained depressions with inorganic soils throughout New York. Black ash,
American elm, swamp white oak, butternut (Juglans cinerea)
and/or bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis) may also associate with red
maple hardwood swamps. Green ash, red maple, slippery elm, American hornbeam (Carpinus
caroliniana), and northern white-cedar may associate with black ash in lowland sites along the Hudson River.
Along rivers and lake shores of central and western New York where conditions
are uniformly wet and seasonal water fluctuations are low, silver maple-ash swamps are
common. Silver maple often makes up
70% of the canopy cover, but black ash, green ash, and white ash are also typical [97]. Huenneke [60]
describes black ash in the
eastern hemlock-yellow birch-red maple
wet vegetation type near Cayuga Lake.


Ohio: Black ash is a dominant species in closed-canopy lowland forests
at an average elevation of 860 feet (262 m) in central Ohio; other common
species are American elm, honey-locust (Gleditsia
triacanthos), and pin oak [16]. Braun [20] describes
black ash in northern coniferous forests, eastern hemlock-pine (Pinus
spp.)-northern hardwood forests, and beech-maple forests of Ohio. On poorly drained sites
that are part of northwestern Ohio's Black Swamp, black ash occurs with silver
maple, green ash, American elm, bur oak, and shellbark hickory (Carya laciniosa) [17].
In swamp forests of west-central Ohio's Cedar Bog,
northern white-cedar, red maple, black
ash, and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) dominate the overstory [27].


Pennsylvania: Black ash occurs in the pin oak-sweet gum (Liquidambar
styraciflua) forest cover type
in Gettysburg National Military Park and Eisenhower National Historic Site in
south-central Pennsylvania [144].


Vermont: In eastern hemlock-northern hardwood forests of central Vermont, sugar
maple, beech, white ash, and yellow birch dominate the canopy, but black ash,
basswood, eastern hemlock, and American elm also populate the canopy [18].


Wisconsin: In the black ash-yellow birch-eastern hemlock hardwood swamps
of Wisconsin's northern lowland forests, black ash is a mid-sized tree (45-70 feet
(14-21 m)) with a narrow crown [30]. In northern white-cedar-balsam fir-black ash swamps of northern
Wisconsin, black ash is most important on compacted organic soils that are inundated for much of the growing
season [25]. Winget and others [140] describe black ash, northern
white-cedar, and yellow birch communities on very poorly drained, black muck soils in
northern Wisconsin where even in mid-summer the ground water is just 12 inches
(3 cm) beneath the soil surface. Black ash is occasional in southern Wisconsin's
elm-ash savannah that is restricted to wet meadow sites. Important
canopy species include silver maple, river birch (B. nigra), green ash,
and swamp white oak [21].


Manitoba: Black ash is now the dominant overstory species in hardwood and
mixed hardwood forests of Manitoba that were dominated by American elm in the past.
Boxelder (Acer negundo) often dominates the subcanopy layer. This
community occurs along small stream floodplains on deep, loamy-clay soils with poor to very poor
drainage [146].


In the early 1970s, black ash colonized the Portage la Prairie
grassland area of Manitoba. While this area experiences periodic spring
flooding, it does not support the wet conditions most often associated with the
distribution of black ash. The successful establishment of black ash in prairie
grasslands suggests that high moisture levels are not the only factor limiting
the range of black ash. Other tree species associated with the Portage la
Prairie include bur oak, American elm, green ash, and red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea
ssp. sericea) [102].



Quebec: In the Haut-Saint-Laurent region, the black ash-American elm
habitat type occupies hydric sites with little
slope and a shallow water table. Pooled water is common throughout the year in
this habitat type. Openings in the canopy created by the death of most American
elm trees due to Dutch elm disease now support several understory species including
blackberries (Rubus spp.), common pricklyash (Zanthoxylum americanum),
and broadleaf enchanter's nightshade (Circaea lutetiana ssp.
canadensis) [22]. In southern Quebec, black ash is typical of balsam
fir-northern white-cedar forests on thick wet soils [42].
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Life Form

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More info for the term: tree

Tree
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Management considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Several techniques necessary to effectively manage black ash stands are
discussed in the literature. For black ash in the Great Lake states, several
silvicultural methods such as thinning, regeneration, and cultivation are
reviewed [39,77]. There are many regression equations using d.b.h.
to estimate the above ground biomass of ashes in Michigan [90,93], Quebec
[91], and the Upper Great Lakes
region [129].




Black ash trees are susceptible to injury by several agents. See the following references for more
information on fungal agents [98,119], insect pests [112,139], and diseases [43].
Solomon and others [114] provide a review of many diseases,
insects, and other agents that damage ash trees.
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Other uses and values

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: seed

Several black ash hybrids and cultivars are used in ornamental landscapes [33].
Information on improving the growth of ornamental black ashes is
available [73]. Williams and Hanks [138] discuss many aspects
of growing black ash commercially; information is included on seed collection,
seed storage, germination, planting, protecting, and lifting.

Black ash wood
splits into slats easily, making it ideal for basketry [59]. Native people of northeastern Canada and the United
States historically and currently use black ash in basket making. Black ash basketry is
common in Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and New York. The Passamaquoddy,
Penobscot, Maliseet, Micmac, and Mohawk people utilize black ash in their baskets [108].

Wood Products:
The wood from black ash trees is not particularly strong and is used mainly for indoor
furnishings. Black ash wood is moderately
heavy; 1 air-dried cubic foot weighs 34 pounds [26]. The grain is coarse, sapwood is almost
white, and heartwood is dark in older trees [26,59]. Wood is used in making cabinets, veneer, paneling, short tool handles,
baskets, and indoor furniture [26,59,131].
Treated black ash wood is also used for posts. A study found, however, that
oil-treated posts outlast untreated posts. Trees cut in the spring were peeled, air dried
to 15% to 25% moisture content, and treated with 5% pentachlorophenol oil solutions.
Posts soaked in oil for 24 hours lasted 33 years, while untreated posts lasted just 4.5 years [64].

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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Phenology

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More info for the term: fruit

Spring flowers and fall fruits are typical for black ash.

State, region Flowering dates Fruiting dates
Illinois May-June [85]  
New York (Adirondack uplands) Flowers just before leaf out ~May 25 [70]  
Virginia and West Virginia April-May (in Virginia and west Virginia) [,141]  
Wisconsin May [30] September [30]
Great Plains May [51,118]  
North-central Plains   August [118]
Ontario (north-central) May-June [112] August-September, fruit dispersed October-early spring [112]


Flowering occurs before black ash trees produce leaves [110]. In northeastern
Minnesota, Ahlgren [1] monitored the seasonal development of black ash for 5 years.
Observations revealed that flowering began after at least 5 days with
minimum temperatures above freezing and spring maximum temperatures exceeding 70 °F
(21 °C). First flowers appeared as early as April 27 or as
late as May 25. First leaves emerged as early as May 20 or as late as June 8. Leaves
changed colors as early as
August 29 or as late as September 13. Leaves fell as
early as September 19 and as late as October 3 [1].
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Plant Response to Fire

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More info for the term: adventitious

Black ash produces sprouts following fire [57]. Sprouting in black
ash is considered "vigorous." Adventitious buds located at
the sides of stumps or root crowns produce the sprouts [39,112].
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Post-fire Regeneration

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More info for the terms: adventitious, crown residual colonizer, root sucker, secondary colonizer, seed, tree

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [120]:




Tree with adventitious bud/root crown/soboliferous species root sucker

Crown residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)

Secondary colonizer (on-site or off-site seed sources)
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Regeneration Processes

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More info for the terms: adventitious, bisexual, fruit, hypocotyl, litter, natural, peat, perfect, root crown, scarification, seed, stratification, top-kill, tree, xeric

Black ash is capable of sexual and asexual reproduction. Asexual regeneration
typically follows top-kill and is through vegetative stump or root crown sprouting [39,77,112].

Breeding system:
Black ash can produce perfect or separate male and female flowers [20,51].
Hosie [59] suggests that male, female, and bisexual flowers can occur on a single tree.
In the northeastern U.S., the smallest tree to flower was 3 inches
(8 cm) in diameter [142].


Pollination:
Ashes are wind pollinated [142].


Seed production:
Large viable seed crops are produced intermittently by black ash. The ability to produce seed
occurs when trees are 30 to 40 years old [57]. In a review, Sims
and others [112] report that good crops of seed are produced at 1- to 8-year intervals.
Similarly, Sutherland and others [122] suggest 5 or more years pass between
good black ash seed production. For 25 years, researchers monitored black ash
seed production in northeastern Wisconsin. They found that seed production was
61% to 100% of full crop for 28%
of this time but was less than 36% of full crop for 68% of the time [49].
In 2 years of seed collection in southeastern Michigan, researchers collected
a total of 98,032 seeds from 42 different species. During the course of this study black ash failed to produce
any "potentially viable
seed" [83].


Seed dispersal:
The timing of fruit shed and weather conditions can affect the dispersal distances for black
ash seed. Sutherland and others [122] report that winds can transport seeds
328 feet (100 m) or more away from the parent tree. Curtis [30] called
winter-shed fruits "ice boats" and suggested that long-distance dispersal is
likely under these conditions. No actual distances were reported.


Seed banking:
Several researchers report that black ash seeds can remain viable for up to 8 years under natural
conditions [112,122].


Germination:
The germination of black ash seed is a multistage process of stratification and scarification
that often takes 2 to 3 years under
natural conditions [30,112]. The embryo
is immature when seeds are shed and requires warmth and moisture to fully develop.
When fully ripe, the embryo is still dormant and requires a cold, moist period to break
dormancy. Seeds germinate best on peat or mineral soils with high organic
content [30] and can germinate in litter or when covered by 0.5 to 0.75
inch (1-2 cm) of soil [39].


Steinbauer [116] conducted in-depth studies of black ash seed germination.
He found that at the time of seed shed the embryo is differentiated into the hypocotyl,
epicotyl, and cotyledons, but the embryo is just 1/2 to 2/3rd the size of the
seed. Embryos attain maximum size (0.5 inch (14 mm))
after 2 to 3 months at 68 °F (20 °C).
Germination does not immediately follow and is likely delayed by mechanical restrictions of the endosperm, suberized
layer, and/or seed coat. The digestion process necessary for germination is most efficient
after 2 to 3 months at 41 °F (5 °C). Higher temperatures (68-86 °F (20-30 °C))
allow the embryo to break mechanical barriers and
germination begins [116]. In the laboratory, maximum germination (87%) of black ash seed
occurred after seeds were ripened in peat moss for 18 weeks at 70 °F (21 °C) and then
exposed to 39 °F (4 °C) temperatures for 24 weeks [133,134].


Seedling establishment/growth:
Black ash seedlings establish under canopy shade on a variety of soils [122]. In
a review, Sims and others [112] report that seedling growth is rapid. Seedlings
may reach 2 inches (5 cm) in the first 2 weeks of growth. In 1 year, seedlings are
often 6 inches (15 cm) tall. Seedling survival is reportedly best at 45% to 50%
full sun conditions [112]. While seedlings can establish under a canopy, they
will eventually need canopy release for long-term survival [122]. Curtis [30]
reports that high densities of black
ash seedlings are rare [30]. Others suggest that grass and brush growth on the site can disrupt
successful establishment [39].


Bell [11] monitored the growth and mortality rates for an average of 6 black ash trees along Hickory Creek in
Illinois. Over the 18 years of the study, the average mean annual growth rate was 3.8±3
(s) mm/year and mortality was 3%±2.2%/year.


Researchers followed the establishment and
survival of black ash, green ash, and white ash seedlings in open meadows
and in upland and lowland young, successional, and closed-canopy forests of central Ohio.
Ashes made up
69.9% of the 2,553 seedlings monitored. Significantly more (p≤0.05) ash seedlings
emerged on lowland sites. Average ash seedling production
was 241±21(s x) new seedlings/100 m²/year
from 1984 to 1993. In 1988 and 1990, seedling production
peaked at approximately 800 to 1,000 new seedlings/100 m². Production in 1988 and 1990 was significantly
greater (p≤0.05) than for any other year. Peak production was not correlated
with any observed annual or seasonal climate
events, and the authors suggest that production peaks related to black ash's
masting behavior. The average life span of ash seedlings was 5
to 7 months. The seedling
population produced in June of 1990 was 916. By October of the same year, 66.7% were
dead; by May of 1991, 96.6% were dead. Survivorship was likely
affected by white-tailed deer browsing; deer occurred in densities of 0.6 to 0.7
animal/ha in the area [16].


Potential changes in growth:
Several factors may affect the growth rate and/or growth form of black ash. In open
canopy conditions, black ash exhibits a broader canopy than trees grown in
closed-canopy forests [26]. The growth rate of black ash
is slower on sites with organic peat and muck soils. Trees are just 30 to 45 feet
(9-14 m) after 50 years of growth and only 50 to 60 feet (15-18 m) in 100 years [39]. Immature plants severely
browsed by white-tailed deer may
develop a shrubby growth form. A single year free of browsing pressure, however, is enough to
allow production of a leader branch [30].


Asexual regeneration:
Vegetative reproduction is common following damage or top-kill [30]. In reviews,
black ash is described as a "vigorous sprouter"
following fire, browsing, or cutting. Sprouts are produced from adventitious buds
located on the sides of stumps or root crowns [39,112]. Black ash produces 7 to 17 stem sprouts when cut [77].


Asexual vs. sexual regeneration:
Along Lake Duparquet in northwestern Quebec,
researchers studied numerous characteristics of black ash's sexually and
asexually produced plants. In
this region, sprouts have higher and more constant mortality rates than
seedlings, and sexually reproduced stems reach older ages and produce larger diameters than
sprouts. Seedlings more often than sprouts reach
canopy height. However, on exposed flooded sites, new (1st-year and older)
seedlings experience higher mortality than sprouts, and vegetative reproduction
predominates. Likely, the more developed sprout root system allows for a more
rapid growth rate and an increased tolerance to flooding. Successful black ash seedling establishment
requires periods free of prolonged, intensive
flooding [127], but xeric conditions are not tolerated either [128].

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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [14]:





None
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

States or Provinces

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(key to state/province abbreviations)


UNITED STATES

CT DE IL IN IA
ME MD MA MI MN
NH NJ NY ND OH
PA RI VT VA WV
WI DC



CANADA

MB NB NF NS ON
PE PQ
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Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Successional Status

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More info for the terms: basal area, bog, climax, cover, cover type, density, fen, forest, hardwood, organic soils, peat, presence, succession, swamp

Black ash is most typical of late successional communities. On wet or swampy
sites, black ash is often considered a climax species. The black ash-American
elm-balsam fir vegetation type is "definitely
climax" on peat soils in Itasca Park, Minnesota. Here the dominant species
are successfully regenerating and the community appears stable [65]. Beech-maple
swamp forests near Cleveland, Ohio, where black ash is common, are considered
"climatic climax" communities [137]. In northern hardwood forests, the elm-ash
vegetation type may be the climax community on poorly drained sites [130].
Conway [28] describes black ash as an important component of central Minnesota's
oldest bog forests. Pure black ash stands on wet organic soils in north-central
Ontario are also deemed climax [112].

Black ash does not represent a climax species in all cases. In mixed
stands on moderately drained mineral soils black ash is regarded as a
"sub-climax" species [112].
The black ash-American elm-red maple cover type is a "temporary
climax" that typically succeeds to tamarack-black spruce
communities but is subsequently
replaced by northern white cedar [104]. Based on black ash's environmental tolerances, Graham [50] suggests
it cannot be a climax species in eastern hemlock-hardwood forests of Michigan's
Upper Peninsula. Because black ash does not often reproduce in thick
layers of decaying material and is only moderately shade tolerant, it cannot
be a climax species in eastern hemlock-hardwood forests.



Shade relationships:
Reviews of black ash indicate that initially black ash is moderately shade tolerant but with
increasing age, shade tolerance decreases [39,112]. Erdmann
and others [39] suggest that seedlings develop best under 45% to 50% of full
sunlight conditions.

Several researchers rated black ash's shade tolerance. Rudolf [105] gives black
ash a shade tolerance rating of 2.4 on a scale that rates extremely
shade-intolerant aspens a 0.7 and extremely shade-tolerant eastern hemlocks a
10. Kaminski and Jackson [62] rate black ash a 4 on a 10-point scale in which 1
corresponds to a complete intolerance of shading.

Response to disturbances:
Powerful storms that blow down or damage trees are the most common
disturbance in black ash forest habitats. Little is reported on fire,
harvesting, or livestock grazing in these habitats. Black ash typically
increases following events that provide openings in the canopy.

One and two years following the 1998 ice storm in northern New York, researchers
observed black ash damage but did not find obvious changes in
diameter distribution [103]. A July wind
storm in 1983 in Minnesota's Anoka and Isanti counties
caused substantial mortality in both eastern white pine (Pinus strobus)
and northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis) forests. In both
forest types, black ash density and basal area initially decreased following the
event, but by the 7th poststorm year, black ash basal area and density exceeded prestorm measurements.
A summary of the changes in black ash density and basal area is
provided below [8]:

Oak forest 1983 b.s.* 1983 a.s. 1990 1993 1997
basal area (m²/ha) 0.8 0.7 1.4 2.0 2.3
density (individuals/ha) 172 148 292 384 376
Pine forest 1983 b.s. 1983 a.s. 1990 1993 1997
basal area (m²/ha) 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.9 1.2
density (individuals/ha) 89 79 155 165 162

*b.s.: before the storm, a.s.: after the storm

Following the widespread mortality of American elm
trees in deciduous swamp communities of southeastern Michigan, researchers
tracked changes in forest composition. Five to ten years after losing the American elm trees, black
ash, red maple, and yellow birch became important overstory and
understory species [9].

The following studies suggest that black ash is a resilient and opportunistic
species regardless of disturbance type.



Researchers indicate that in northern Lower Michigan an increased presence of black ash and red maple is
typical during the
secondary succession of wet, bog sites following cutting or fire [45,46]. On a
1st order stream near Duluth, Minnesota, the selective removal of quaking aspen
trees by American beavers increased the importance of black ash in the area [61].
Researchers visited upland swamp forests of
northeastern Indiana 20 and 53 years after domestic livestock
grazing was discontinued. Livestock grazed with "medium to heavy intensity" until
1930 in the area. Black ash did not appear on grazed sites in the 20th
postgrazing year but was found in the 53rd postgrazing year. By 1984, the density of black ash
on previously grazed sites was 93.9 stems/ha.
In nearby ungrazed oak-hickory forests, black ash density was 89.0 stems/ha in 1931, 19.8 stems/ha in 1951,
and 19.8 stems/ha in 1984. This study suggests that livestock grazing may prohibit
successful black ash establishment [7].

Community change over time:
Several have monitored the species composition changes in black ash communities and many have
speculated about future changes in black ash forests. The succession of flood plains in north-central United States forests
begins with the establishment of shade-intolerant, flood-tolerant pioneers (cottonwoods (Populus
spp.) and willows (Salix spp.)). These species are later replaced by more
shade-tolerant, flood-tolerant species (ashes and elms). The latest successional
communities are dominated by American beeches, basswoods, and white oaks that
tolerate heavy shade and flooding [107].

In the Cedar Bog fen of west-central Ohio, researchers assessed age class
associations, population structure, density-diameter curves, and life history
information that suggested black ash and red maple would increase but remain
subdominant to northern white-cedar for the "foreseeable future" [27].

In a 30-year study of Connecticut's mixed hardwood forests, muck soil sites showed
an increased abundance of black ash over time. Trees were aged between 25 and 40
years old when monitoring began. In 1927, there were 6 black ash trees/acre, and in 1957 there were 12 trees/acre [89].
Forty years of monitoring in the Indian Bowl area of Berrien
County, Michigan, revealed similar increases in black ash. The percentage of
total stems belonging to black ash more than doubled over the course of the
study. The tamarack swamps that black ash occupied in Indian Bowl had organic soils high in calcium,
occupied elevations between 600 and 750 feet (183-229 m),
and were relatively free of human-caused disturbances.
The increases in black ash at 10-year intervals are provided below. Increases in
black ash occurred with general increases in the total number of stems per acre,
suggesting black ash increases rather than other species decreases explains
black ash's increased percentage of total stems [68,117].

Year 1927 1937 1957 1967
% total stems 2 2.2 2.9 5.7
% total basal area 0.1 0.6 4.9 8
Total stems/acre 312 288 438 438

In northern Lower Michigan, researchers monitored changes during 40 years of
secondary succession on 2 lowland sites. Severe disturbances (logging and
burning) occurred in the area from 1870 to the early 1920s. At the time of plot
establishment, the oldest trees were 10 to 15 years old. One site was a mixed
conifer swamp on poorly drained organic soils dominated by northern white-cedar, black
spruce, and balsam fir. The other site occurred on a flat, moist sandy plain
dominated by quaking aspen. Here the water table varied from a few inches above
the soil surface to 30 inches (76 cm) below. The basal area of black ash in
mixed conifer-dominated sites in 1981 was lower than in 1938. In the quaking
aspen-dominated forests, the basal area of black ash increased substantially
from 1938 to 1981. The comparisons between different sites and communities makes
assigning the changes in black ash basal area to any single site or community
characteristic difficult. The results of this study are summarized below [106]:

Year 1938 1945 1951 1955 1981
Site
mixed conifer-dominated
Black ash basal area (cm²) 80 149 154 148 57
Site
quaking aspen-dominated
Black ash basal area (cm²) 6 26 94 118 688

In an old-growth, central hardwood forest of east-central Indiana, changes
in vegetation composition were compared over a span of 60 undisturbed years. Bur
oak
trees in the forest were 201 to 306 years old. Black ash density (number of
stems/plot) decreased from 1926 to 1986, a change that researchers attributed to increased shading in
the forests [4].
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bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Taxonomy

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: marsh

The scientific name of black ash is Fraxinus nigra Marsh. (Oleaceae) [20,51,63,101,110,121].
When citing literature that did not specify
species or refers to multiple species within the ash genus (Fraxinus
spp.), the common name ash will be used.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
No
information is available on this topic.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Gucker, Corey L. 2005. Fraxinus nigra. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/franig/all.html

Fraxinus nigra

provided by wikipedia EN

Fraxinus nigra, the black ash, is a species of ash native to much of eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, from western Newfoundland west to southeastern Manitoba, and south to Illinois and northern Virginia.[2] Formerly abundant, as of 2014 the species is threatened with near total extirpation throughout its range, as a result of infestation by a parasitic insect known as the emerald ash borer.

Description

Image of black ash trunk. Tree is located in a seasonally wet, riparian habitat near a small-scale stream. Tree bark is corky and spongy.
Image of black ash trunk. Tree is located in a seasonally wet, riparian habitat near a small-scale stream. Tree bark is corky and spongy.

Black ash is a medium-sized deciduous tree reaching 15–20 metres (49–66 ft) (exceptionally 26 metres (85 ft)) tall with a trunk up to 60 cm (24 inches) diameter, or exceptionally to 160 cm (63 inches). The bark is grey, thick and corky even on young trees, becoming scaly and fissured with age. The winter buds are dark brown to blackish, with a velvety texture. The leaves are opposite, pinnately compound, with 7–13 (most often 9) leaflets; each leaf is 20–45 cm (8–18 in) long, the leaflets 7–16 cm (2+346+14 in) long and 2.5–5 cm (1–2 in) broad, with a finely toothed margin. The leaflets are sessile, directly attached to the rachis without a petiolule. The flowers are produced in spring shortly before the new leaves, in loose panicles; they are inconspicuous with no petals, and are wind-pollinated. The fruit is a samara 2.5–4.5 cm (1–1+34 in) long comprising a single seed 2 cm (34 in) long with an elongated apical wing 1.5–2 cm (5834 in) long and 6–8 mm (14516 in) broad.[3][4][5]

Ecology and conservation status

Black ash commonly occurs in swamps,[5] often with the closely related green ash. Its fall foliage is yellow. Black ash is one of the first trees to lose its leaves in the fall. It is very closely related to Manchurian ash, and will easily hybridize with it. Some consider the two to be geographic isolates of each other.

The species was considered abundant and its survival of little concern prior to the invasion of the emerald ash borer, first detected in North America in 2002. However, since that time this invasive insect has spread throughout most of the tree's range, and within a few years black ash is expected to be all but extirpated; a similar fate awaits green ash. In 2014, a U.S. Forest Service agent estimated that "ninety-nine percent of the ashes in North America are probably going to die." Blue ash and white ash are only slightly less affected.[6]

Direct usefulness for humans

This wood is used by Native Americans of the North East for making baskets and other devices. The Shakers also made extensive use of the black ash for creating baskets. Also called basket ash, brown ash, swamp Ash, hoop ash, and water ash. It is also a popular wood for making electric guitars and basses, due to its good resonant qualities.[7]

Creating basket strips

Black ash splint basket by Kelly Church (Odawa-Ojibwe)

Black ash is unique among all trees in North America in that it does not have fibers connecting the growth rings to each other.[8] This is a useful property for basket makers. By pounding on the wood with a mallet, the weaker spring wood layer is crushed, allowing the tougher and darker summer wood layer to be peeled off in long strips. The long strips are trimmed, cleaned, and used in basket weaving. Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands also make bark baskets from black ash, traditionally used for berry-gathering.[8]

Usefulness to wildlife

North American native ash tree species are used by North American frogs as a critical food source, as the leaves that fall from the trees are particularly suitable for tadpoles to feed upon in ponds (both temporary and permanent), large puddles, and other water sources.[9] Species such as red maple, which are taking the place of ash, due to the ash borer, are much less suitable for the frogs as a food source—resulting in poor frog survival rates and small frog sizes.[9] It is the lack of tannins in the American ash variety that makes them good for the frogs as a food source and also not resistant to the ash borer. Varieties of ash from outside North America typically have much higher tannin levels and resist the borer. Maples and various non-native invasive trees, trees that are taking the place of American ash species in the North American ecosystem, typically have much higher leaf tannin levels.[9] Ash species native to North America also provide important habitat and food for various other creatures that are native to North America, such as the long-horned beetle, avian species, and mammalian species.[10] Black ash is a food plant for the larvae of several species of Lepidoptera; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on ashes.

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fraxinus nigra.
Wikispecies has information related to Fraxinus nigra.
  1. ^ Jerome, D.; Westwood, M.; Oldfield, S.; Romero-Severson, J. (2017). "Fraxinus nigra". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T61918683A61918721. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T61918683A61918721.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ "Fraxinus nigra". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
  3. ^ New Brunswick tree and shrub: Fraxinus nigra
  4. ^ Virtual Herbarium of the Chicago Region: Fraxinus nigra Archived 2006-10-04 at the Wayback Machine
  5. ^ a b Wright, Jonathan W.; Rauscher, H. Michael (1990). "Fraxinus nigra". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Hardwoods. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Vol. 2 – via Southern Research Station.
  6. ^ "After the Trees Disappear". The New York Times. 30 June 2014.
  7. ^ Guitar Wood FAQ – Wood Types & Tones
  8. ^ a b Diamond, Allaire K.; Emery, Marla R. (2011-11-29). "Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra Marsh.): Local Ecological Knowledge of Site Characteristics and Morphology Associated with Basket–Grade Specimens in New England (USA)1". Economic Botany. 65 (4): 422–426. doi:10.1007/s12231-011-9174-z. ISSN 0013-0001. S2CID 45635986.
  9. ^ a b c Stephens, Jeffrey; Bervan, Keith; Tiegs, Scott (3 May 2013). "Anthropogenic changes to leaf litter input affect the fitness of a larval amphibian". Freshwater Biology. 58 (8): 1631–1646. doi:10.1111/fwb.12155.
  10. ^ "Black Ash". Illinois Wildflowers. Dr. John Hilty. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
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Fraxinus nigra: Brief Summary

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Fraxinus nigra, the black ash, is a species of ash native to much of eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, from western Newfoundland west to southeastern Manitoba, and south to Illinois and northern Virginia. Formerly abundant, as of 2014 the species is threatened with near total extirpation throughout its range, as a result of infestation by a parasitic insect known as the emerald ash borer.

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visit source
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