Description
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Eurycea lucifuga can be red, dull yellow, or orange with a belly that ranges from yellow to white (Bishop 1994). The back and sides of the head, trunk, and tail contain small rounded or irregular black spots (Bishop 1994). These spots can sometimes form a dorso-lateral linear pattern (Bishop 1994). This salamander is slender and has a blunt snout (Petranka 1998). The largest part of the head is located immediately behind the eyes (Bishop 1994).Adult Eurycea lucifuga are 100-200mm in total length (Petranka 1998). A survey by Hutchison (1958) found that adult males are mature at 46mm SVL and females are mature at 48mm SVL. Males can be identified externally by a swollen snout area by the nasolabial grooves (Bishop 1994). Additionally, males posses more developed cirri than females (Bishop 1994). Juveniles are less pigmented then adults, and are yellowish in color (Conant and Collins 1998). Juveniles also have a shorter tail (Conant and Collins 1998).
- Bishop, S. (1994). Handbook of Salamanders: The Salamanders of the United States, of Canada, and of Lower California. Comstock Publishing Associates, London.
- Collins, J., Collins, S., Horak, J., Mulhern, D., and Busby, W. (1995). An Illustrated Guide to Endangered or Threatened Species in Kansas. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
- Dundee, H.A. (1947). ''Notes on salamanders collected in Oklahoma.'' Copeia, 2, 117-120.
- Hutchison, V. (1958). ''The distribution and ecology of the Cave Salamander, Eurycea lucifuga.'' Ecological Monographs, 28(1), 2-20.
- Ringia, A.M., Lips, K. (2007). ''Oviposition, early development and growth of the cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga: surface and subterranean influences on a troglophilic species.'' The Herpetologists' League, Inc., 63(3), 258-268.
Distribution and Habitat
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Eurycea lucifuga has been found from Tippecanoe County, Indiana in the north to Polk County, Georgia in the south and from Mayes County, Oklahoma in the west to Rockbridge County, Virginia in the east (Hutchison 1958). E. lucifuga is found in the twilight zone of cave habitats and is dependant on limestone for suitable cave habitats (Dundee 1947). Eurycea lucifuga is classified as a troglophile which means it is dependant on the cave environment to complete its life cycles but it has the ability to leave the cave temporarily (Ringia and Lips 2007).
Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors
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This species is not currently threatened and its populations are remaining stable. However, because of its dependence on Limestone caves and aquifers, any tampering or destruction of these environments will harm the populations inhabiting them.This species could also be threatened by global climate change because a direct link has been found between larval mortality rate, and increases in natal pool temperature (Ringia and Lips 2007). A recent study found that increased natal pool temperatures can lead to fatal fungal infections in larvae (Ringia and Lips 2007).
Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors
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Oviposition in Eurycea lucifuga takes place from June to November during periods of decreased stream flow (Ringia and Lips 2007). The long breeding season of this species allows for multiple clutches in a season (Ringia and Lips 2007). Larvae leave their natal pools between December and May and the movement is linked to an increase in water flow, oviposition is timed to avoid exposure to spring floods (Ringia and Lips 2007). An average clutch size was described by Hutchison (1958) by looking at ovarian eggs in 17 females. He determined the average to be 68.3 eggs per clutch, with a median of 67, and a range from 49 to 87 (Hutchison 1958). Oviposition occurs deep in cave streams or in cave pools (Ringia and Lips 2007). Larvae emerge at around 17.5mm total length (Bishop, 1994).An estimation of abundance was given by Hutchison (1958) in a mark-recapture study of four caves found in Giles County, Virginia. In Lucas Cave; Hutchison (1958) estimated 62 individuals; in Williams Cave, Virginia, 60 individuals; in Link Cave, Virginia, 63 individuals, and in Tawney’s Cave, Virginia, 36 individuals.Eurycea lucifuga has been known to climb rocks (Conant and Collins, 1998).
Relation to Humans
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Eurycea lucifuga currently does not have any destructive relationships with humans. Furthermore, it is a well-studied species, which will help conserve this animal if any threats arise in the near future.
Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Maximum longevity: 9.1 years (captivity)
Observations: In captivity, these animals may live more than 9 years (http://www.pondturtle.com/).
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Habitat
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Most frequently found in the twilight zone of caves, but also occasionally under logs and rocks in the surrounding moist forests more than a kilometer away from the nearest cave (Conant and Collins, et. al, 1995, Petranka 1998). The twilight area of a cave is the area just inside the entrance where there is some light, but not enough for plants to grow (Taylor 1999).
Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; mountains
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- Fawley, J. 2002. "Eurycea lucifuga" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eurycea_lucifuga.html
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- Jessica Fawley, Michigan State University
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- James Harding, Michigan State University
Life Expectancy
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Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 9.1 years.
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- Fawley, J. 2002. "Eurycea lucifuga" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eurycea_lucifuga.html
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- Jessica Fawley, Michigan State University
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- James Harding, Michigan State University
Morphology
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Eurycea lucifuga is a slender, dull yellow, orange or bright reddish-orange salamander with a white or yellow belly. Its back, sides of the head, trunk and tail are covered with many small, irregular or rounded spots that rarely form dorsolateral rows. It has a very blunt snout with the largest part of their head right behind the eyes. E. lucifuga has a relatively long tail and long limbs with 5-4 toes, the hind ones being webbed at the base (Bishop, 1994). There are between 14 and 15 costal grooves (Conant and Collins, 1998).
Adults in this species are from 10-20 cm long (Petranka 1998). The sexes are, on average, the same size but distinguishable by details of the head. The males are noticeably swollen in the snout area by the nasolabial grooves and the cirri (small tabs of flesh that carry are more developed than in the females (Bishop, 1994). The juveniles will usually be a lighter ground color (yellow) and have a shorter tail (Conant and Collins, 1998). As the individual grows, the color will deepen and the tail will lengthen.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry
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- Fawley, J. 2002. "Eurycea lucifuga" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eurycea_lucifuga.html
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- Jessica Fawley, Michigan State University
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- James Harding, Michigan State University
Distribution
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Found throughout most of Kentucky, reaching up into the southwest tip of Ohio and into much of southern Indiana. From there, the range extends from the southern tip of Illinois, southern Missouri, northern Arkansas, the northeast tip of Oklahoma and the southeast tip of Kansas. The range also covers central and eastern Tennessee, the northern portions of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and extends up the border between the Virginias.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
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- Fawley, J. 2002. "Eurycea lucifuga" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eurycea_lucifuga.html
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- Jessica Fawley, Michigan State University
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- James Harding, Michigan State University
Trophic Strategy
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E. lucifuga eat many kinds of invertebrates, including many kinds of insects, mites, ticks, isopods, earthworms, and other soft-bodied creatures. At least one study has found juvenile slimy salamanders (Plethodon glutinosus) in the stomachs of specimens of this species (Petranka, 1998). It has a baletoid tongue which it uses in combination with a short lunge to capture its prey, being able to fully extend the tongue in approximately 5.5 milliseconds (Deban 1996). They have long, angled vomerine teeth accompanied by parasphenoid teeth which form club-shaped patches (Bishop, 1994).
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- Fawley, J. 2002. "Eurycea lucifuga" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eurycea_lucifuga.html
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- Jessica Fawley, Michigan State University
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- James Harding, Michigan State University
Life Cycle
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Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis
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- Fawley, J. 2002. "Eurycea lucifuga" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eurycea_lucifuga.html
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- Jessica Fawley, Michigan State University
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- James Harding, Michigan State University
Conservation Status
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This species is endangered in Kansas, but currently has no federal status. Activities by humans in and around the caves in addition to groundwater pollution have been thought tobe the potential sources of the decline in populations (Collins, et. al, 1995).
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
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- Fawley, J. 2002. "Eurycea lucifuga" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eurycea_lucifuga.html
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- Jessica Fawley, Michigan State University
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- James Harding, Michigan State University
Reproduction
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Breeding occurs from September to February (possibly later in some areas), and can occur twice in the same year. Females have been found with 5-120 eggs. Eggs have only rarely been found, they are laid singly, apparently in deep recesses in cave streams and springs (Collins, et. al, 1995, Petranka 1998). Small larvae, approximately 17.5 mm, emerge that are uniform in color with three longitudinal rows of spots and a broad tail fin (Bishop, 1994).
Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
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- Fawley, J. 2002. "Eurycea lucifuga" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eurycea_lucifuga.html
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Spotted-tail salamander
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The spotted-tail salamander (Eurycea lucifuga), also known as a "cave salamander",[2] is a species of brook salamander.[3]
Description
The spotted-tail salamander is a relatively large lungless salamander, ranging in total length from 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in). The tail makes up a significant proportion of the total length, up to 60–65%.[4] Post-metamorphic individuals have orange to reddish orange backs and a pale, unmarked ventral surface. The dorsal surface of the body is heavily marked with irregularly spaced spots and dashes.[5] The limbs of the spotted-tail salamander are long. There are 14–15 costal grooves on the side of the body. This species has a prehensile tail.[6]
Habitat and distribution
Spotted-tail salamanders are typically found in areas with exposed limestone or other calcareous rock, particularly in crevices of rock faces, bluffs and caves.[7] This species is also frequently found hundreds of metres from the mouths of caves, far beyond the twilight zone of the cave.[8] Despite the alternative name, the spotted-tail salamander is not restricted to caves, and may be found in forests near bluffs and rocky crevices and around springs, and also under moist rocks and logs.[6][9] This species is found in Alabama, Arkansas[2] Illinois,[10] Missouri,[11] Kentucky, Virginia,[12] West Virginia,[10] Oklahoma, Tennessee, Kansas, Indiana, and Ohio.
Courtship and reproduction
The courtship and mating season is not well documented in this species, although available data suggests it occurs in the summer, continuing to early autumn. Observations made from a pair maintained in captivity are summarized as follows: The courtship of this species is described as similar to that of the Northern two-lined salamander; where the male nudges and rubs his chin on the females’ head and snout. The male may engage in ‘push-ups’ using his hind legs, and begin to position the base of his tail under the females. If receptive, she will straddle his tail as they walk in unison, while the male arches his back. A spermatophore, approximately 4 mm high is deposited on the ground in the females path, which she picks up with her cloaca.[13] After mating, there seems to be a prolonged period in which the females deposit eggs, taking place from September to February.[6] Few biologists have found eggs of the spotted-tail salamander, suggesting that females seek difficult to access places, such as springs, streams and rim stone pools deep within caves and crevices. In Missouri, eggs have been found laid singly or attached to the sides of rimstone pools, on silt deposits or on the bottom of small pools. Recently laid eggs are white, with two jelly membranes surrounding the embryo. Egg diameter ranges from 2.5 to 3.2 mm.[14] Females can produce between 5–120 eggs.[15]
Larval ecology
Larval spotted-tail salamanders appear similar to other larval Eurycea. Larvae have been found in both surface streams, and in cave streams and pools. It is thought that larvae found in surface streams may have been washed out of caves and crevices by heavy rains. Spotted-tail salamander larvae are predators, and feed primarily on benthic invertebrates, such as snails, ostracods, copepods, isopods, mayflies, stoneflies, beetles and flies, of which ostracods, snails and fly larvae are the most common dietary item. Prey is captured by slowly crawling over the substrate and grasping the invertebrate by the mouth and swallowing it whole, thus prey is limited by the gape of the salamanders mouth.[16] From hatching to metamorphosis to a terrestrial adult takes between 6 and 18 months, although this period is variable by region.[6] Larvae may attain sizes of 70 mm (33 mm snout-to-vent-length) by the time of metamorphosis.[17]
References
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^ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2014). "Eurycea lucifuga". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2014: e.T59269A64169818. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-3.RLTS.T59269A64169818.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
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^ a b "Salamanders". Outdoor Alabama. Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Archived from the original on September 28, 2012. Retrieved October 17, 2012.
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^ Conant, R.; Collins, J.T. (1998). Peterson Field Guides: Reptiles and Amphibians (Eastern/Central North America). New York, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0395904528.
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^ Hutchison, V.H. (1966). Eurycea lucifuga. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles. pp. 24.1–24.2
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^ Lannoo, M.J. (1998). Status and Conservation of Midwestern Amphibians. Iowa City, Iowa: University of Iowa Press. ISBN 0877456321.
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^ a b c d Petranka, J.W. (1998). Salamanders of the United States and Canada. Washington, District of Columbia: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1588343081.
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^ Banta, A.M.; McAtee, W.L. (1906). "The life history of the cave salamander, Spelerpes maculicaudus (Cope)". Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 30 (1443): 67–73. doi:10.5479/si.00963801.30-1443.67. hdl:10088/13873.
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^ Peck, S.B.; Richardson, B.L. (1976). "Feeding ecology of the salamander Eurycea lucifuga in the entrance, twilight zone, and dark zone of caves". Annales de Spéléologie. 31: 175–182.
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^ Mount, R.H. (1975). The Reptiles and Amphibians of Alabama. Auburn, Alabama: Auburn Printing. ISBN 0817300546.
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^ a b Conant, R.; J.T. Collins, J.T. (1998). A Field Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America. New York, New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0395904528.
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^ Johnson, T.; Love, K. (1987). The Amphibians and Reptiles of Missouri. Jefferson City, Missouri: Missouri Department of Conservation. ISBN 1887247092.
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^ Smith, Hobart M. (1978). Amphibians of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York, New York: Golden Press. p. 160 ISBN 0307636623
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^ Organ, J.A. (1968). "Courtship behavior and spermatophore of the cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga (Rafinesque)". Copeia. 1968 (3): 576–580. doi:10.2307/1442027. JSTOR 1442027.
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^ Green, N.B.; Brant, P. Jr.; Dowler, B. (1967). "Eurycea lucifuga in West Virginia: its distribution, ecology and life history". Proceedings of the West Virginia Academy of Science. 39: 297–304.
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^ Bishop, S. (1994). Handbook of Salamanders: The Salamanders of the United States, of Canada, and of Lower California. London: Comstock Publishing Associates. ISBN 0801482135.
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^ Rudolph, D.C. (1978). "Aspects of the larval ecology of five Plethodontid salamanders of the western Ozarks". The American Naturalist. 100 (1): 141–159. doi:10.2307/2424785. JSTOR 2424785.
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^ Williams, A.A. (1980). "Fluctuations in a population of the cave salamander". National Speleological Society Bulletin. 42: 49–52.
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Spotted-tail salamander: Brief Summary
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The spotted-tail salamander (Eurycea lucifuga), also known as a "cave salamander", is a species of brook salamander.
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