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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 6.7 years (captivity)
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Morphology

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The European souslik has a slender but strong body. The legs are relatively short; the forelegs and hind legs are about the same length (Parker, 1990). The back is yellow-gray and densily covered by whitish-yellow speckles or dots. The dots disappear on the sides of the body, and the belly is yellow. The chin and the throat are white. The European souslik has short and smooth body hair which becomes straighter and stiffer in winter (Parker, 1990). The external ears of the European souslik are flat. The forehead is broad and flat, causing the large eyes to be far apart. The cheek pouches are rather small. The tail is short, measuring about 3.8-7.4cm, and is coated with hair (Parker, 1990).

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Average mass: 217 g.

Average basal metabolic rate: 1.272 W.

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Yu, H. 1999. "Spermophilus citellus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spermophilus_citellus.html
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Helen Yu, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Life Expectancy

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Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
6.7 years.

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Yu, H. 1999. "Spermophilus citellus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spermophilus_citellus.html
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Helen Yu, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Habitat

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European sousliks inhabit open landscapes. They prefer to live in prairies and steppes, rocky country, open woodlands, abandoned farms, and desert mountain ranges (Nowak, 1991). They avoid wet areas, the banks of permanent waters, or any type of wet areas created by accumulated water. (Parker, 1990). They are not found in areas with a dense forest cover (Nowak, 1991).

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; mountains

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Yu, H. 1999. "Spermophilus citellus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spermophilus_citellus.html
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Helen Yu, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Distribution

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Southeast Germany; Czech Republic; Slovakia; Southwest Poland through Southeast Europe to European Turkey; Moldova; Ukraine

Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native )

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Yu, H. 1999. "Spermophilus citellus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spermophilus_citellus.html
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Helen Yu, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Trophic Strategy

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The European souslik feeds primarily on vegetation, nuts, seeds, and grains; however, individuals may also consume small invertebrates, small vertebrates, and birds'eggs (Emanoil, 1994; Nowak, 1991).

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Yu, H. 1999. "Spermophilus citellus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spermophilus_citellus.html
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Untitled

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The European souslik is also known as plain squirrel because its inconspicuous coloration makes its silhouette blend with the surroundings. Spermophilus citellus is sometimes known as Citellus citellus.

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Yu, H. 1999. "Spermophilus citellus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spermophilus_citellus.html
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Helen Yu, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Behavior

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Perception Channels: tactile ; chemical

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Yu, H. 1999. "Spermophilus citellus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spermophilus_citellus.html
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Conservation Status

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The European souslik has been declining rapidly in Europe because of the destruction of habitat through intensification of agriculture and large-scale reallotment of land. The species may now be extinct in some area. European sousliks are protected in Hungary and Poland. However, throughout this range, edge populations are steadily decreasing (Emanoil, 1994). Although European sousliks are disappearing in Europe, they are still common in other countries (Parker, 1990).

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable

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Yu, H. 1999. "Spermophilus citellus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spermophilus_citellus.html
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Helen Yu, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Reproduction

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The gestation period of the European souslik is 25-26 days. European sousliks mate only once a year, producing 2-9 youngs per birth. The offspring are born naked; the eyes and the ears are still closed. The weaning period is about 30 days, and the males hardly participate in the weaning of a litter. European sousliks reach sexual maturity in 1 year (Parker, 1990).

Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual

Average gestation period: 27 days.

Average number of offspring: 6.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
314 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
314 days.

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Yu, H. 1999. "Spermophilus citellus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spermophilus_citellus.html
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Helen Yu, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Biology

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Although the European ground squirrel lives in burrows in loosely structured populations, it is not an exceptionally social or territorial species (2). In common with all ground-dwelling squirrels, it is mostly active during the hours of sunlight, devoting most of its attention to foraging for food. Roots, seeds, shoots and flowers comprise the bulk of this species' diet, but occasionally small invertebrates will also be taken (1) (4). However, as an important part of the food chain itself, it is commonly preyed upon by larger predators such as polecats and birds of prey (5) (6). During the summer months, there is a rise in foraging activity as each ground squirrel attempts to accumulate as much stored fat as possible before the onset of hibernation (2). Unlike many other ground squirrels, it does not stock-pile food but must rely on doubling its body mass to see it through the long winter (2) (3). Entering hibernation near the beginning of September, European ground squirrels do not appear from the underground burrows again until late March. Soon after emerging there is a scramble amongst the males to gain access to the reproductively active females. This period of breeding lasts three to four weeks, with each female mating with only one male. Following 25 days of development in the womb, the females give birth to a litter of 4 to 11 young which receive milk for around 30 days before being weaned. The young reach maturity after the following hibernation, but not all will breed in their first year (3).
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Conservation

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The European ground squirrel is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (1). Under this legislation, it is the responsibility of the countries within the species' range to ensure its conservation (7). In 2005, this species was reintroduced successfully to Poland and a project has recently been initiated to reintroduce it into Germany. One of the main priorities of conservation efforts is to conduct further studies into the ecology, threats and population biology of the European ground squirrel. This research will provide crucial data in determining appropriate future conservation measures (1).
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Description

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The European ground squirrel belongs to a genus commonly referred to as the sousliks, with representatives spread throughout the northern hemisphere from California to China (3). Ground squirrels tend to have stout, low-slung bodies, resting upon short legs, and a well-furred tail measuring about a third the length of the body (2) (3) (4). The European ground squirrel generally has short yellowish fur but the back is tinged distinctly grey with dense cream spots (2) (3). All species within the genus have sizeable internal cheek pouches for carrying food (3).
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Habitat

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An inhabitant of open landscape without dense vegetation cover, the European ground squirrel is normally found in short-grass habitats on light, well-drained soils (1) (3). This includes a range of natural and artificial habitats such as steppe grassland, pasture, vineyards, sports fields and golf courses (1).
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Range

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The European ground squirrel is endemic to central and eastern Europe, from the Czech Republic in the northwest to Turkey in the southeast (1). Historically, its western boundary extended into southeast Germany (1) (2).
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Status

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Classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List (1).
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Threats

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The conversion of steppe grassland and pasture into cultivated farmland and forestry is chiefly responsible for a serious decline in the population of European ground squirrels (1) (3). As a consequence of the rapid loss of suitable habitat, the population is becoming severely fragmented, whilst its range is retracting, particularly in the west (1). Furthermore, as an integral part of the food chain, a decrease in the number of European ground squirrels is probably responsible for a decline in the populations of many other vulnerable species (5).
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European ground squirrel

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The European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus), also known as the European souslik, is a species from the squirrel family, Sciuridae.[2] It is among the few European species in the genus Spermophilus. Like all squirrels, it is a member of the rodent order. It is to be found in eastern and central Europe from southern Ukraine, to Asia Minor, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Serbia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia and north as far as Poland but the range is divided in two parts by the Carpathian Mountains.

The European ground squirrel grows to a length of approximately 20 cm (8 in) and a weight of approximately 300 grams (11 oz). It is a diurnal animal, living in colonies of individual burrows in pastures or grassy embankments. The squirrels emerge during the day to feed upon seeds, plant shoots and roots or flightless invertebrates. The colonies maintain sentinels who whistle at the sight of a predator, bringing the pack scurrying back to safety.

Breeding takes place in early summer when a single litter of five to eight young is borne. The European ground squirrel hibernates between autumn and March, the length of time depending on the climate. In preparation they will build up reserves of brown fat during the late summer.

Description

The European ground squirrel is about the size of a brown rat, with an adult measuring 20 to 23 cm (8 to 9 in) and a weight of 240 to 340 g (8.5 to 12.0 oz). It has a slender build with a short bushy tail. The short dense fur is yellowish-grey, tinged with red, with a few indistinct pale and dark spots on the back. The underside is pale with a sandy-coloured abdomen. The large dark eyes are placed high on the head and the small, rounded ears are hidden in the fur. The dental formula is 1/1, 0/0, 2/1, 3/3. The legs are powerful with sharp claws well adapted for digging. Males are slightly larger than females otherwise they look alike.[3][4]

The European ground squirrel has a shrill alarm call that will cause all other individuals in the vicinity to dive for cover. It also makes various soft chirruping and growling noises.[3]

The European ground squirrel could be confused with the speckled ground squirrel which occurs in Poland (Lublin Voivodeship), Romania, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, but that species has dark brown fur spotted with white and a thin tail and lives in areas with coarser vegetation.[5]

Distribution and habitat

The European ground squirrel is native to central and southeastern Europe where its range is divided by the Carpathian Mountains. Its range includes land at altitudes of up to 800 metres (2,600 ft) in southern Ukraine, Asia Minor, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia and north as far as Poland. It has become locally extinct in Germany and Poland but was reintroduced successfully into the wild in Poland in 2005. Some of the animals were sourced from the Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport.[6]

The European ground squirrel has very specific habitat requirements. It needs short turf in order to dig its tunnel system. It finds this on the steppes and in pasture, in dry banks, on sports fields, parks and lawns. These conditions are lost when changes in agricultural practice convert grassland into arable land and forest, or grazing ceases and the grass grows coarse and scrubland develops.[1] Other places with short vegetation that sometimes provides suitable habitat are railway embankments and road cuttings and verges.[3]

Behaviour

European ground squirrel whistling
European ground squirrel eating the seeds of the denseflower mullein

The European ground squirrel is a colonial animal and is mainly diurnal. It excavates a branching system of tunnels up to 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) deep with several entrances. At other places in the home range it digs unbranched bolt holes in which to hide if danger threatens. If alarmed it emits a piercing whistle and when it is out in the open it often sits upright and looks around for predators. These include the weasel, fox, domestic cat and some species of birds of prey. It feeds on grasses, other plants, flowers, seeds, cultivated crops, insects and occasionally the eggs of ground nesting birds or their chicks.[3] A study in Bulgaria found that the squirrel spent about eleven hours a day outside its burrow in mid-summer but by early autumn this has reduced to seven hours. Rather over half of the day was spent foraging but other activities observed included exploration, running, sitting, grooming, digging, scent marking and vigilance.[7] During the winter it stops up the entrances to its burrow and hibernates in a nest of dry vegetation. Each individual occupies a separate chamber and during this period, the body temperature drops to 2.0 °C (36 °F), and the heart rate slows to a few beats per minute. During hibernation, the squirrel may wake up briefly for a few days and uses up the fat reserves accumulated during the summer, consuming about 90% of the fat stored in the body.[8] In Bulgaria hibernation lasts from September to March.[7]

Breeding

After emerging from hibernation in the spring, mating takes place during April or May. The gestation period is about twenty six days and five to eight young are born in a chamber deep in the burrow. They are naked and blind and their eyes open at about 4 weeks old. The female feeds them for six weeks and soon after that they are ready to leave the burrow. They reach maturity the following spring and may live for eight to ten years.[3]

Status

The European ground squirrel is listed as being endangered by the IUCN in its Red List of Threatened Species. This is because the population trend is downward and it is believed that, over the last ten years, the population has diminished by more than 30%. The southern and the northwestern and northern parts of the range are most seriously affected. The main threats are the conversion of grassland and pasture to cultivated fields or to forestry, and the abandonment of grassland and its reversion to unsuitable tall grass meadows and bushy habitats that do not suit the animal. Urbanization and road building have sometimes fragmented communities and prevented recolonisation of empty sites.[1]

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spermophilus citellus.
  1. ^ a b c Hegyeli, Z. (2020). "Spermophilus citellus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T20472A91282380. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T20472A91282380.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ Thorington, R.W., Jr.; Hoffman, R.S. (2005). "Family Sciuridae". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 805. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  3. ^ a b c d e Konig, Claus (1973). Mammals. Collins & Co. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-00-212080-7.
  4. ^ Domińska, Rozmawiała Agata (2010-08-27). "Susły po 30 latach wracają na dolnośląskie łąki" (in Polish). Gazetapl Wroclow. Retrieved 2013-09-20.
  5. ^ Zagorodnyuk, I.; Glowacinski, Z. & Gondek, A. (2008). "Spermophilus suslicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T20492A9208074. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T20492A9208074.en.
  6. ^ "Wakacje z sympatycznymi polskimi susłami" (in Polish). Dziennik Polski. 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2013-09-20.
  7. ^ a b Koshev, Yordan S.; Kocheva, Maria A. (2008). "Daily Activity Pattern in Free-living European Ground Squirrels Spermophilus citellus (Mammalia: Rodentia) from Northwestern Bulgaria" (PDF). Acta Zoologica Bulgarica. 2: 149–154.
  8. ^ "O suśle" (in Polish). Salamandra. Retrieved 2013-09-20.
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European ground squirrel: Brief Summary

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The European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus), also known as the European souslik, is a species from the squirrel family, Sciuridae. It is among the few European species in the genus Spermophilus. Like all squirrels, it is a member of the rodent order. It is to be found in eastern and central Europe from southern Ukraine, to Asia Minor, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Serbia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia and north as far as Poland but the range is divided in two parts by the Carpathian Mountains.

The European ground squirrel grows to a length of approximately 20 cm (8 in) and a weight of approximately 300 grams (11 oz). It is a diurnal animal, living in colonies of individual burrows in pastures or grassy embankments. The squirrels emerge during the day to feed upon seeds, plant shoots and roots or flightless invertebrates. The colonies maintain sentinels who whistle at the sight of a predator, bringing the pack scurrying back to safety.

Breeding takes place in early summer when a single litter of five to eight young is borne. The European ground squirrel hibernates between autumn and March, the length of time depending on the climate. In preparation they will build up reserves of brown fat during the late summer.

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