Fulmarus glacialis may be most closely related to Antarctic fulmars (Fulmarus glacialoides).
Northern fulmars are one of the few species of birds with a well-developed sense of smell. They may use olfaction to detect and find prey and can be attracted to areas by fish oil smells. Similar to other petrels and shearwaters, they emit a strong, musky odor. Individuals emit this odor when handled and colonies and flocks are easily detected by their smell. Birds sometimes engage in allopreening upon returning to breeding colonies.
Northern fulmar vocalizations have been described as "cackling" or "braying" at various speeds. These vocalizations are used during courtship, at approaches to nesting colonies, and in aggression against intruders. They make other calls as well, described as grunts, mewing, and spitting, which warns a threat that these birds are about to spit stomach oil at them, a defensive mechanism. Hatchlings use a food-begging call that stimulates parents to regurgitate.
They also use a variety of visual displays in aggressive encounters, including raising their wings, rushing at other birds, and pushing their breasts against the other bird. They also use their spitting call and oil spitting in aggressive encounters.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Northern fulmars have a large range and large population sizes, they are considered "least concern" by the IUCN. Northern fulmar populations have increased dramatically in the northern Atlantic and expanded their range in the last 2 centuries, possibly as a result of greater food availability from fish discards from commercial fishing operations. They were once heavily exploited at colonies for food, but are not generally taken for food currently. They may be threatened by coastal pollution near breeding colonies and likely suffer mortality associated with entanglement in fishing gear.
US Migratory Bird Act: protected
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
There are no adverse effects of northern fulmars on humans.
Northern fulmars have been historically collected for food at nesting colonies.
Positive Impacts: food
Northern fulmars are important predators and scavengers in arctic and temperate pelagic waters. They occur in large breeding colonies with other cliff-nesting seabirds, including murres (Uria), kittiwakes (Rissa), and cormorants (Phalacrocorax). They may use areas of breeding islands with more vegetation and soil accumulation than these other species. They feed on large zooplankton brought to the surface by feeding gray whales (Eschrictius robustus) and are often found in close association with black-legged kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) in arctic waters.
Northern fulmars are susceptible to various diseases, including viral ornithosis, which can be transmitted to humans, and shellfish paralysis. Ectoparasites reported are chewing lice (Procellariphaga brevifimbiata, Saemundssonia occidentalis, and Perineus nigrolimbatus), endoparasites reported are nematodes (Stegophorus stellaepolaris).
Mutualist Species:
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
Northern fulmars eat fish, squid, and large zooplankton such as amphipods (Thysanoessa, Hyperia, Gammarus, and Themisto species). They are opportunistic feeders and also take discarded fish and carrion, such as whale, walrus, and seal blubber. They eat a wide variety of prey, but seem to prefer fish with high fat content. They drink seawater. They capture prey mainly at the surface, but will occasionally dive as well. Northern fulmars often accompany fishing fleets, forming large aggregations to take advantage of fish waste. They are one of the few bird species with a well-developed sense of smell and are thought to use olfaction to detect prey. They tend to forage at marine upwellings that cause temporary concentrations of large zooplankton, including areas near ice sheets or upwelling associated with feeding gray whales (Eschrictius robustus) or trawling operations. Northern fulmars travel widely in search of food. During the breeding season individual leave the colony on foraging trips of 4 to 5 days that may take them up to 460 km from the colony, although most foraging is within 100 km of the colony.
Animal Foods: fish; carrion ; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans; cnidarians; zooplankton
Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore , Scavenger )
Northern fulmars are found throughout the northern Atlantic and Arctic oceans in the northern hemisphere. They occur as far south as Cape Cod, Massachusetts in the western Atlantic, the British Isles in the eastern Atlantic, Japan in the western Pacific and California in the eastern Pacific. There are 3 recognized subspecies: F. g. glacialis in the northernmost Atlantic, F. g. audubonii is found in the lower Arctic of the north Atlantic, and F. g. rodgersii is found in the north Pacific.
Northern fulmars range widely across the Atlantic, with individuals regularly traveling between North America and Britain, including immature individuals. In the western Atlantic, most northern fulmars in 11 large colonies above 65 degrees North latitude in eastern Canada. Additional breeding colonies are found in Greenland, Newfoundland, and Labrador. Concentrations of northern fulmars occur around Newfoundland in early spring and some evidence suggests a general northwards movement in populations between May and July. Fledglings disperse southwards rapidly from breeding colonies in September and October. In winter the majority of northern fulmars occur in offshore waters and are rarely observed.
Biogeographic Regions: arctic ocean (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )
Other Geographic Terms: holarctic
Northern fulmars are found in ocean waters over continental shelves. They are found from the pack ice of Arctic waters to temperate waters. They seem to prefer shelf break habitats (the area where the continental shelf begins to descend towards the sea floor) or areas over the continental slope. They are rarely seen more than 100 km from shore. They breed on rocky cliffs and islands up to 1 km inland, but typically close to the water or coastal. They have occasionally been reported nesting on human structures, like houses in coastal areas.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; polar ; saltwater or marine
Aquatic Biomes: coastal
Northern fulmars have exceptionally long lifespans. Average adult life expectancy is estimated at 31.8 years. Birds have been reported breeding at over 50 years old. Annual survival rates are approximately 0.988 for adults. Most mortality is during the egg and early hatchling phase.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 50 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 31.8 years.
There are 4 color morphs of northern fulmars: very dark, dark, light, and very light. Color morphs seem to differ in their distribution during the breeding season and in the timing of their molt. The 3 recognized subspecies are distinguished by differences in bill length and thickness and the proportion of the different color morphs, although the subspecies do have individuals of multiple color morphs generally. Individuals of different color morphs seem to mate indiscriminantly, although breeding colonies tend to be made up mainly of a single color morph. Immature individuals cannot be distinguished from adults. Most molting occurs in July. Molting seems to make some populations unable to fly, but not others. Males are slightly larger, on average 835 g whereas females average 700 g (range of masses is 450 to 1000 g). The sexes are similar in overall appearance. Northern fulmars are from 45 to 50 cm long with wingspans of 102 to 112 cm.
Northern fulmars have thick, yellow to gray bills with darker areas over the "tubes." Their legs and feet are flesh-colored to gray. Dark color morphs are more common in the southern portions of their range in the Atlantic and the northern portions of their range in the Pacific. Light color morphs are more common in the northern portion of the range in the Pacific. Atlantic populations tend to have robust bills and are almost exclusively light color morphs, whereas Pacific populations have bills that are more slender and exhibit the full range of color variation. Light morphs are uniformly pale, with head, neck, and ventral surfaces white and with their backs and wings being gray. Dark morphs are uniformly dark gray. Nearly all individuals of any color morph have a light to white patch on the dorsal surface of their wings formed by the exposed lighter portion of their primaries, this is only lacking in the darkest of individuals. Individuals can vary between the very dark ("double dark") and light ("double light") morphs described above. Variation is more of less continuous, but is divided into 4 morph categories for convenience.
Northern fulmars can be confused with pink-footed shearwaters (Puffinus creatopus) or flesh-footed shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes), but can be distinguished by their thick, rounded heads and stubby bills.
Range mass: 450 to 1000 g.
Average mass: 700 to 835 g.
Range length: 45 to 50 cm.
Range wingspan: 102 to 112 cm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
Northern fulmars are preyed on by red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) at breeding colonies. Other introduced predators include ground squirrels (Spermophilus) and rats (Rattus norvegicus). Northern fulmars are not susceptible to these terrestrial predators, except at breeding colonies. They will spit a foul smelling oil at predators when threatened.
Known Predators:
Northern fulmars are monogamous and rejoin their mates each year at the same nest site for breeding. If an individual's mate dies, they will mate with a young, inexperienced mate following year, but at the same nest site. Males and females associate at the nesting colony for a few weeks before they lay an egg. They copulate frequently, then both depart to forage during the pre-laying phase.
Mating System: monogamous
During the pre-laying period, females store sperm in their reproductive tract and begin the process of yolk formation, which takes about 23 days. After yolk formation, females ovulate, the egg is fertilized, and the female returns to the colony and lays her egg within a few hours of arrival. Egg-laying occurs about 3 weeks after breeding.
Northern fulmars begin to breed in April and lay their eggs in late May to early June in large colonies on ledges and among rocks. They may also nest in areas with more soil and vegetation than other seabirds and will even nest on buildings and walls. Nests are fairly simple scrapes, sometimes lined with bits of vegetation. From 80 to 99% of nests are re-used by at least 1 member of the original pair each year. Females lay a single, white egg and incubation lasts for 47 to 53 days. The process of hatching takes from 4 to 5 days. Young fledge at 49 to 58 days in early September, with the last young northern fulmars leaving their natal sites by early October. Sexual maturity is not reached until 5 to 20 years old (average 8 years in males, 12 years in females).
Breeding interval: Northern fulmars breed once yearly.
Breeding season: Breeding occurs in the late spring and early summer, beginning in May.
Range eggs per season: 1 to 1.
Range time to hatching: 47 to 53 days.
Range fledging age: 49 to 58 days.
Average fledging age: 53 days.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 5 to 20 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 12 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 5 to 20 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 8 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous ; sperm-storing
Average eggs per season: 1.
Both parents incubate the eggs, staying on the nest for from 1 to 11 (average 4.6) days until relieved by the other parent. Males often take particularly long incubation shifts at the beginning of incubation, presumably to allow the female to recover from laying the egg. Young hatch with a light covering of down and are closely tended by parents for 10 to 16 days after hatching, after which parents primarily visit the nest to feed their young. They are able to thermoregulate at 3 to 6 days old. Parents feed their young by regurgitation in response to the chick's food begging call. Young fledge at 49 to 58 (average 53) days old, about 4 to 5 days after the parents have stopped feeding them. Young fledge at 115 to 119% of adult body mass.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)
The northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), fulmar,[2] or Arctic fulmar[3] is a highly abundant seabird found primarily in subarctic regions of the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. There has been one confirmed sighting in the Southern Hemisphere, with a single bird seen south of New Zealand.[4] Fulmars come in one of two color morphs: a light one, with white head and body and gray wings and tail, and a dark one, which is uniformly gray. Though similar in appearance to gulls, fulmars are in fact members of the family Procellariidae, which include petrels and shearwaters.
The northern fulmar and its sister species, the southern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides), are the extant members of the genus Fulmarus. The fulmars are in turn a member of the order Procellariiformes, and they all share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns; however, nostrils on albatrosses are on the sides of the bill, as opposed to the rest of the order, including fulmars, which have nostrils on top of the upper bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between seven and nine horny plates. One of these plates makes up the hooked portion of the upper bill, called the maxillary unguis. They produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This can be sprayed out of their mouths as a defense against predators from a very early age, and as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights.[5] It will mat the plumage of avian predators, and can lead to their death.[6] Finally, they also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage that helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. This gland excretes a high saline solution from their nose.[6]
The northern fulmar was first described as Fulmarus glacialis by Carl Linnaeus in 1761, based on a specimen from within the Arctic Circle, on Spitsbergen.[3] The Mallemuk Mountain in Northeastern Greenland is named after the northern fulmar (Danish: Mallemuk).
The northern fulmar was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1761 in the second edition of his book Fauna Svecica. He placed it with the other petrels in the genus Procellaria and coined the binomial name Procellaria glacialis.[7] Linnaeus based his description mainly on the "Mallemucke" that had been described and illustrated in 1675 by the German naturalist Friderich Martens in his account of his voyage to Spitzbergen.[8][9] The northern fulmar is now placed in the genus Fulmarus that was introduced in 1826 by the English naturalist James Stephens.[10][11] The genus name comes from the Old Norse Fúlmár meaning "foul-mew" or "foul-gull" because of the birds' habit of ejecting a foul-smelling oil. The specific epithet glacialis is Latin for "icy".[12]
Three subspecies are recognised:[11]
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The northern fulmar has a wingspan of 102 to 112 cm (40–44 in)[3] and is 46 cm (18 in) in length.[13][14][15] Body mass can range from 450 to 1,000 g (16 to 35 oz).[16] This species is gray and white with a pale yellow, thick bill and bluish legs.[17] However, there are both a light morph and dark, or "blue," morph; in the Pacific Ocean there is an intermediate morph as well. Only the dark morph has more than dark edges on the underneath but they all have pale inner primaries on the top of the wings. The Pacific morph has a darker tail than the Atlantic morph.[3][13][14][17][18][19][20]
Like other petrels, their walking ability is limited, but they are strong fliers, with a stiff wing action quite unlike the gulls. They look bull-necked compared to gulls, and have short stubby bills.[17] They are long-lived, with a lifespan of 31 years not uncommon.[21]
This fulmar will feed on shrimp, fish, squid, plankton, jellyfish, and carrion, as well as refuse.[3][6][18][19] When eating fish, they will dive up to several feet deep to retrieve their prey.[15]
The northern fulmar starts breeding at between six and twelve years old. It is monogamous, and forms long-term pair bonds. It returns to the same nest site year after year.[6] The breeding season starts in May;[3] however, the female has glands that store sperm to allow weeks to pass between copulation and the laying of the egg.[6] During the breeding season adult Fulmars usually remain within 500 km of their breeding colony instead of traveling up to thousands of kilometers while searching for food.[23] Their nest is a scrape on a grassy ledge or a saucer of vegetation on the ground, lined with softer material. The birds nest in large colonies[3][6][15][18][19] Recently, they have started nesting on rooftops and buildings.[3] Both sexes are involved in the nest-building process.[6] A single white egg, 74 mm × 51 mm (2.9 in × 2.0 in),[6] is incubated for a period of 50 to 54 days, by both sexes. The altricial chick is brooded for 2 weeks[24] and fully fledges after 70 to 75 days. Again, both sexes are involved.[3][6] During this period, the parents are nocturnal, and will even be inactive on well-lit nights.[6]
The mating ritual of this fulmar consists of the female resting on a ledge and the male landing with his bill open and his head back. He commences to wave his head side to side and up and down while calling.[6]
They make grunting and chuckling sounds while eating and guttural calls during the breeding season.[18][19]
The northern fulmar is estimated to have between 15,000,000 and 30,000,000 mature individuals that occupy an occurrence range of 28,400,000 km2 (11,000,000 sq mi) and their North American population is on the rise, hence it is listed with the IUCN as Least Concern.[1] The range of these species increased greatly last century due to the availability of fish offal from commercial fleets, but may contract because of less food from this source and climatic change.[3] The population increase has been especially notable in the British Isles.[18]
Northern fulmars' stomach contents are a hallmark indicator of marine debris in marine environments because of their high abundance and wide distribution.[25] A study of 143 northern fulmars from 2008 to 2013 found 89.5% of them containing microplastics within their gastrointestinal tracts. A mean score of 19.5 pieces of plastic and 0.461 g per individual was calculated.[26] This is considerably higher than in past studies on northern fulmars, possibly implying increasing plastic debris in marine ecosystems and shorelines. However, more research is needed to substantiate such conclusion. Long-term data from the Netherlands dating back to the 1980s show an increase in consumer plastics and a decrease in industrial plastics in the stomach contents of fulmars.[25] The increased plastic ingestion can occur through biomagnification: their diet consists of such invertebrates like plankton that have shown an increase of consumption of microplastics entering the ocean. By going deeper into the food web of marine life, it is evident that fulmars could be indirectly affected through tropic transfer and biomagnification, and similarly could also affect their predators ingestion of plastic pollution. With the increase in freshwater pollution of plastic debris, there may be a further rise in microplastic content of seabird gastrointestinal tracts.
The northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), fulmar, or Arctic fulmar is a highly abundant seabird found primarily in subarctic regions of the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. There has been one confirmed sighting in the Southern Hemisphere, with a single bird seen south of New Zealand. Fulmars come in one of two color morphs: a light one, with white head and body and gray wings and tail, and a dark one, which is uniformly gray. Though similar in appearance to gulls, fulmars are in fact members of the family Procellariidae, which include petrels and shearwaters.
The northern fulmar and its sister species, the southern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides), are the extant members of the genus Fulmarus. The fulmars are in turn a member of the order Procellariiformes, and they all share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns; however, nostrils on albatrosses are on the sides of the bill, as opposed to the rest of the order, including fulmars, which have nostrils on top of the upper bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between seven and nine horny plates. One of these plates makes up the hooked portion of the upper bill, called the maxillary unguis. They produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This can be sprayed out of their mouths as a defense against predators from a very early age, and as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights. It will mat the plumage of avian predators, and can lead to their death. Finally, they also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage that helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. This gland excretes a high saline solution from their nose.
The northern fulmar was first described as Fulmarus glacialis by Carl Linnaeus in 1761, based on a specimen from within the Arctic Circle, on Spitsbergen. The Mallemuk Mountain in Northeastern Greenland is named after the northern fulmar (Danish: Mallemuk).
