Because of their inclination to prey on the bait used by trawlers and other fishing boats, many royal albatross were killed in fishing lines and nets. Today, new, more costly methods have been developed and implemented to prevent harm to the birds.
Due in part to their large size and solitary lifestyle, both in the air and on secluded islands, royal albatross have no known predators. Humans have been a threat in the past, but recent, stricter penalties for killing royal albatross have helped populations remain stable.
Considered the largest seabird and amongst the largest of all birds capable of flight, D. epomophora is most recognizable by its remarkably long, slender, knife-like wings. It can have a wingspan of over ten feet. It weighs 9000 g on average and is 107 to 122 cm long. There are two subspecies of D. epomophora, however, differences in appearance are minimal. Both are predominantly white, with faint pinkish bills. Northern royal albatross (D. e. sanfordi) are considerably smaller and have entirely black upper wings. Southern royal albatross (D. e. epomophora) have predominantly white wings with black markings near the wing tips. There is little sexual dimorphism within the species, and males tend to be only slightly larger than females.
Average mass: 9000 g.
Range length: 107 to 122 cm.
Range wingspan: 305 to 351 cm.
Average wingspan: 325 cm.
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Royal albatross are remarkably long-lived when considering that the vast majority of their lives are spent over the perilous southern oceans. The adult mortality rate is 3 percent per year. In the wild, a royal albatross was known to have lived to over 58 years. It is possible that some birds may reach an age of 80 years.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 58 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 58.0 years.
Nearly 80 percent of a royal albatross' life is spent directly exposed to the cold, treacherous, open oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. Remote tropical islands are sought out for nesting. They typically nest on slopes with tussock grass providing some shelter, though exposed sites are also common as they ease the often difficult tasks of take-off and landing.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial ; saltwater or marine
Aquatic Biomes: pelagic ; coastal
The range of Diomedea epomophora extends throughout the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. Two subspecies of D. epomophora are recognized today. Northern royal albatrosses (D. e. sanfordi) commonly nest on Campbell Island and the Auckland Islands. Southern royal albatrosses (D.e. epomophora) nest almost exclusively on the Chatham Islands, located hundreds of miles east of New Zealand. After breeding, the species may circumnavigate the Southern Ocean, though it is most commonly sighted in New Zealand and South American waters. It has never been recorded north of the Equator.
Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native ); australian (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )
Royal albatross are carnivorous. They eat mainly cephalopods (Moroteuthis ingens, Kondakovia longimana, Hisioteuthis atlantica), fish (Macruronus novaezelandiae), and some crustaceans. Due to their lack of maneuverability, an albatross rarely picks up prey in flight. Instead, they sit on the water and use a method known as surface-seizing. Occasionally, they make shallow plunges. Most of their hunting, particularly for squid, is done at night.
Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans
Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Molluscivore )
Because of their generally solitary lifestyle and the wide expanse of territory they cover, royal albatross have little impact on their surroundings. Royal albatross are predators located at the top of the food chain. Due to the small population size of royal albatross, populations of their prey are left relatively unaffected.
Their oceanic habits and isolated Southern Hemisphere range make royal albatross virtually inaccessible to humans. Because of their mastery of flight, royal albatross have gained worldwide admiration and respect and are sought out by birdwatchers. As a result, killing one for any reason is considered a serious offense.
Positive Impacts: ecotourism
Populations declined rapidly in the past due to less stringent requirements on fishing practices. Recent bans in New Zealand waters have required trawlers to replace outdated equipment and implement new, safer methods. Populations have stabilized as a result of these measures. Today, populations are estimated to be 10,000 to 20,000 pairs. Royal albatross are listed as 'Vulnerable' by the IUCN.
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable
Elaborate displays are done by males and females to form pair-bonds. Actions like 'Bill-circling', 'Sky-pointing', 'Flank-touching' with the bill and the spreading of the wings are involved in courtship. These displays are typically accompanied by a variety of calls. This form of communal dancing usually takes place on land but on occasion it can occur at sea. Royal albatross are usually silent at sea but can become rather vocal when competing for food, especially around fish boats. Croaking, shrieking, and gargling sounds are the most common sounds made during competition for food. As a threat to intruders, a highly characteristic rattling sound can be produced by clappering the bill quickly and repeatedly.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Royal albatross pair for life. 'Divorce' is rare and typically only occurs after several failed breeding attempts, under normal conditions only death can split a pair. Royal albatross have extensive and varied courtship displays that include actions like 'Bill-circling', 'Sky-pointing', 'Flank-touching' with the bill, and full spreading of the wings. In many cases, these rituals are done and a pair is formed in the season prior to breeding. An elaborate courtship is unnecessary for birds that have bred together in the previous year. Previously mated pairs usually use the same nest-site as the year before. Typically, the male arrives a few days before the female. A few greeting ceremonies are performed upon the arrival of the female, and shortly thereafter, they breed. Breeding is biennial (occurs every two years), due in part to the long incubation period. As a result, there is no replacement egg laying, forcing a pair to wait until the following season to re-nest if their egg is lost.
Mating System: monogamous
Royal albatross reproduce once biennially, breeding starts in October. Without fail, only one egg is laid. Eggs weigh between 205 to 487 g, about 5 to 11 percent of the body weight of the mother. Incubation lasts 79 days. Chicks have white down and their coloration is similar to that of adults. Chicks fledge after about 240 days, at this point, the chick simply flies off on its own. Sexual maturity is reached in 9 to 11 years.
Breeding interval: Biennial
Breeding season: Breeding begins in October
Average eggs per season: 1.
Average time to hatching: 79 days.
Average fledging age: 240 days.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 9 to 11 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 9 to 11 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; oviparous
Having arrived to the nest-site first, the male defends the territory against other males and rebuilds or starts building a new nest while he waits for his partner. When the female arrives a few days later, the birds briefly display then copulate. Immediately afterwards, both return to sea where they feed and begin to build up a reserve of food. Both birds return to the nest shortly before the egg is laid. The female lays the egg then immediately retreats to the sea. The male is left to incubate the egg until the female returns, sometimes leaving the male without food or water for 2 to 3 weeks. When the female returns to the nest, the male leaves to find food and regain his strength. This pattern continues until the egg hatches and the chick no longer needs to be brooded, this usually takes six weeks. At this point, both parents leave to find food but return daily to feed their chick a meal of partly digested fish, squid, and stomach oil that adults produce during the ordinary digestion of their food. The oil is rich in fats and helps provide the nutrients necessary for the chick to grow despite long spans without food. The growing chick wanders around the nest-site between visits, but must return to the nest to be fed. After a few brief failures, the chick simply flies away to start life on its own.
Parental Investment: no parental involvement; altricial ; pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)
The southern royal albatross or toroa, (Diomedea epomophora) is a large seabird from the albatross family. At an average wingspan of above 3 m (9.8 ft), it is one of the two largest species of albatross, together with the wandering albatross. Recent studies indicate that the southern royal albatross may, on average, be somewhat larger than the wandering albatross in mass and have a similar wingspan,[3] although other sources indicate roughly similar size for the two species and the wandering species may have a larger average (and maximum) wingspan in some colonies.[4]
Albatrosses belong to family Diomedeidae of the order Procellariiformes, along with shearwaters, fulmars, storm petrels, and diving petrels. They share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns; the nostrils of the albatross are on the sides of the bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between seven and nine horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This is used against predators as well as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights.[5]
This species was once considered conspecific with the northern royal albatross (Diomedea sanfordi) as the royal albatross. The split into two species is widely though not universally accepted: it is recognized by, for example, the IOC World Bird List,[6] BirdLife International,[7] Brooke,[8] and Robertson & Nunn,[9] but not by Clements,[10] while the American Ornithologists' Union has recognized the need for a proposal.[11]
Diomedea refers to Diomedes, a figure from Greek mythology whose companions turned to birds.[12]
The southern royal albatross has a length of 112 to 123 cm (44–48 in)[13] and a mean weight of 8.5 kg (19 lb). At Campbell Island, 11 males were found to have a mean mass of 10.3 kg (23 lb) and 7 females were found to have a mean mass of 7.7 kg (17 lb), thus may be heavier on average than most colonies of wandering albatross.[4] Males are about 2 to 3 kg (4.4 to 6.6 lb) heavier than females. Average wingspan has been reported from 2.9 to 3.28 m (9.5 to 10.8 ft), with an upper limit of about 3.50 m (11.5 ft). The wandering albatross can exceed this species in maximum size and averages slightly larger in linear dimensions if not bulk, but the two species are close enough in dimensions that size cannot be used to distinguish between them.[14][15][16] The juvenile has a white head, neck, upper mantle, rump, and underparts. There are black speckles on the mantle, and dark brown or black wings with white flecks on coverts. The tail is white except for the black tip as is the under-wing. Young birds soon lose the black on their tail and backs. White appears on the upperwing gradually, as speckles starting from the leading edge. All ages have a pink bill with black on the cutting edge on the upper mandible, and the legs are flesh-coloured. Young birds with all-dark upperwings can be hard to differentiate from the northern royal albatross. There are clear but subtle differences from the wandering albatross, with the southern royal having a clean black and white appearance, lacking the peach neck spot often found on the wandering albatross. Most wandering albatrosses have dark feathers in the tail and crown and the white in this species expands from the middle of the wing, in larger blotches. The bill is also slightly paler, as well as the dark cutting edge along the middle. The average lifespan is 58 years.[17]
Most of the royal albatross population is found between 30° S and 45° S.[18] The majority of the world's population of southern royal albatrosses nest on the rat-free[19] subantarctic Campbell Island, around 8,200 to 8,600 pairs. There are smaller colonies on Adams Island and Auckland Island in the Auckland Islands, 20 pairs combined, and 69 pairs on Enderby Island and some sanfordi × epomophora hybrids at the northern royal albatross colony on the Otago Peninsula in New Zealand. They range along the southern oceans concentrating on the west and east coast of southern South America, and also in the waters surrounding New Zealand.[13]
They attract their mates using methods such as bill-snapping, clapping and gulping. Others ways also include sky-calling with outstretched wings, and neck and head stretched upwards.[20]
The southern royal albatross eats squid and fish, with smaller amounts of carrion, crustaceans, and salps.[13] Its foraging activities normally take place within a 1250 km radius of the breeding site.[21] Although they travel vast distances, royal albatrosses in general tend to forage in somewhat shallower waters and closer to continental shelves than wandering albatrosses.[22]
They prefer to nest on tussock grassland, plateaus, or ridges, and will lay one egg biennially. This will normally take place in November or December. Both parents will incubate the egg, and rear the young. After they are born it takes about 240 days for a baby to grow its wings fully and fly by itself.There is very low mortality rates of the laid eggs once the parents settle in.[23] When feeding the young they will range south to the Campbell Plateau and north to the Chatham Rise.[13]
The IUCN classifies this bird as vulnerable,[1] with an occurrence range of 63,400,000 km2 (24,500,000 sq mi) and a breeding range of 750 km2 (290 sq mi), with a total estimated population of between 28,000 and 29,500 (1997). As a top-tier organism in its natural habitat, it has very few predators but major fishing industries are a huge problem for all albatross species among other seabirds.[24]
The population is recovering from its severe downward spiral in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By the 1880s, this albatross was extirpated from Auckland Island and Enderby Island. Pigs and cats are still a problem, as they take chicks and eggs, on Auckland Island. Longline fishing is a major problem and a possible emerging threat is Dracophyllum, a shrub that is taking away from their nesting range.[13]
_with_chick_on_Campbell_Island.jpg)
Adult with chick on mound nest on Campbell Island
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Southern Ocean, New Zealand
Southern Ocean, New Zealand
Pair on Campbell Island
Off Kaikoura, New Zealand
The southern royal albatross or toroa, (Diomedea epomophora) is a large seabird from the albatross family. At an average wingspan of above 3 m (9.8 ft), it is one of the two largest species of albatross, together with the wandering albatross. Recent studies indicate that the southern royal albatross may, on average, be somewhat larger than the wandering albatross in mass and have a similar wingspan, although other sources indicate roughly similar size for the two species and the wandering species may have a larger average (and maximum) wingspan in some colonies.
