As specialized semi-fossorial snakes, all members of the genus Cerastes exhibit predatory launch strikes from partially buried positions in the Saharan sands. As such, the majority of the communication and perception techniques demonstrated by these snakes incorporate multiple environmental stimuli in order to enhance prey localization and acquisition. Through multiple studies and experiments, it has been found that foraging by vibration detection is particularly significant in C. cerastes, as well as other members of the genus. Additionally, visual capabilities are pertinent in strike accuracy and distance, although the snake is still quite capable of capturing prey with hindered vision. Interestingly, prey capture behavior does not seem to be limited by olfactory senses, and in contrast to common belief, chemosensory reliance in Cerastes during foraging is nearly negligible, as visual stimuli act as primary determinants of prey apprehension.
When communicating with other members of its own species, Sahara horned vipers rely mostly upon chemical signals in the form of pheromones. This is used particularly during the mating season, as it acts to locate members of the opposite sex. Also, C. cerastes makes use of vibrational stimuli and the ability to sense heat from other organisms in the environment from its pit organs in order to locate prey. Located just behind the nostrils, the pit organs in these snakes allow them to detect warm-blooded animals, even in the dark.
Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones
Perception Channels: visual ; infrared/heat ; tactile ; acoustic ; vibrations ; chemical
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Center for Mediterranean Cooperation, Cerastes gasperettii is considered a species of “Least Concern” in terms of its conservation status. In fact, all three species of Cerastes are not of particular concern in the Mediterranean Basin.
A region relatively rich in biodiversity, the Mediterranean Basin is regarded as a biodiversity hotspot due to the abundance of threatened plant endemism that occurs. The primary threat to reptilian populations is habitat loss and degradation, mainly due to human activities. Pollution, the introduction of alien species, and general human disturbance are among the largest impacts to these populations. It is important to note that snakes are generally affected to the highest degree, however, only a few are actually considered threatened.
CITES: no special status
As an oviparous species, Cerastes gasperettii offspring development occurs outside of the mother's body, in the fertilized eggs she lays. An increase in oxygen consumption allows the snake to experience an exponential growth pattern throughout embryonic development, and normal respiration rates are assumed after hatching.
A venomous snake, Cerastes gasperettii is capable of inflicting damage to its prey, but also bites when threatened. Common amongst all three species of Cerastes, the venom is cytotoxic, affecting the walls and contents of cells, yet is not very toxic when compared to most other snakes in the region.
Despite the widespread distribution of Sahara horned vipers, their relatively hostile habitats result in few humans bitten, and therefore little statistical data is available concerning C. cerastes bites. However, venomous bites have been known to cause swelling, nausea, hemorrhaging, vomiting, necrosis, and hematuria. Bites should be treated immediately with elevation, analgesics, and antibiotic cover. For more serious bites, supply of an appropriate antivenin is required.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings, venomous )
As a very successful predator across the Sahara, C. cerastes acts to control populations of rodents that disturb livestock and other food sources of the native people of the region. In some areas, local people consider the snake to be of no particular danger, and the species is even tolerated around some villages. In contrast, other regions fear the snake, and believe it to have powers and even that it is capable of flying. Some native snake charmers use C. cerastes because of their horns, and large numbers of the species have been observed for sale at tourist resorts.
In addition, the venom derived from Sahara horned vipers provides a great deal of information concerning certain enzymes and their effects on reptilian and mammalian biochemical processes, as well as assist in the production of antivenins that are used for a variety of African snake species.
Positive Impacts: source of medicine or drug ; research and education
This species is a particularly successful predator throughout the Sahara. With only a few known predators, it can be inferred that C. cerastes acts to limit the population sizes of the prey upon which it feeds.
The diet of this carnivorous species consists primarily of small rodents, geckos, birds, and a variety of lizards. In captivity, a full grown specimen was observed to feed on weaver finches (Passer domesticus niloticus), lacertids (Mesalina olivieri), and dune geckos (Stenodactylus petrii). These vipers are also known to eat jerboas (Jaculus jaculus), yellow wagtails (Motacilla flava thunbergi), and chiffchaffs (Phylloscopus collybita). Cerastes gasperettii has been known to travel long distances at night in search of prey.
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; reptiles
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)
Sahara horned vipers are among the most abundant and easily distinguishable of the venomous snakes of the North African and Middle Eastern deserts. Cerastes gasperettii is generally distributed all across North Africa, including southwestern Arabia and southwestern Israel. Common in the Sahara desert, it is most frequently found between Egypt and Morocco. Its range extends to southward to northern Mali, Niger, northern Chad, Sudan, and Mauritania.
Although records are rare in the southern Saharan borderlands, this snake has been reported within the Sahel, the sub-steppe region of the Sahara. Interestingly, C. cerastes is also known to inhabit the deserts of the eastern Sinai, coexisting with the Arabian horned viper, Cerastes gasperettii.
Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native ); ethiopian (Native )
Found throughout the Sahara in Northern Africa, C. cerastes inhabits a variety of habitats within the desert, including rock hills, sandy deserts, and wadis. Members of this species can sometimes be found in dunes, and are rarely found on rock pavement and gravel plains.
It has been determined that there is a strong correlation between microclimate and the general distribution of this species. Saharan horned vipers generally prefer cooler temperatures, with annual averages of 20°C or lower, and are usually found in altitudes of up to 1500m. Even humidity is important when considering the locality of these snakes. Temperatures must be high enough for the snake to bask and obtain heat, and humid enough to retain a maximum amount of water present in the body, as the only source of water is from prey.
Range elevation: 1500 (high) m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune
Although very little is known concerning the lifespan of individuals in the wild, specimens in captivity have been observed to survive for up to 18 years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 14 to 18 years.
Sahara horned vipers are amongst the most distinct of the North African desert snakes. Compared to most snakes in the region, this species is short in length, averaging between 30 and 60 cm. Hatchlings are usually between 12 and 15 cm. Although females are larger, both sexes share the same general body structure and color patterns. The head is somewhat flat, broad, and triangular, with eyes on the side of the head, and the neck is thin.
Covered in approximately 25 to 35 rows of heavily keeled scales, C. cerastes is characterized by the presence of supraorbital “horns”, which consist of a single scale above each eye, from which a dark line extends towards the back of snake. This feature is what generally distinguishes Sahara horned vipers from other species of the genus Cerastes, as Cerastes gasperettii has horns that consist of multiple scales, and Cerastes vipera has its eyes on the top of the head. Prominent brow ridges typically ensue the lack or reduction of these horns.
The body is broad and appears flat, with a short tail which may have a black tip. This species is brownish-yellow and gray in color, perfectly blending into the sandy environment in which it lives. Dorsally, it also has rectangular brown patches that are darker in color than the rest of the body.
Range length: 30 to 85 cm.
Average length: 30 to 60 cm.
Other Physical Features: heterothermic ; venomous
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; female larger
Sahara horned vipers are known to have only a few natural enemies, including honey badgers, monitor lizards, and a variety of wild and feral cat species. The snakes' colors provide optimum camouflage, working in their favor as both predators and prey. In addition, although C. cerastes burrows in order to stay cool during the day, as well as to attack unsuspecting prey, this behavior may also help hide it from potential predators.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Information regarding the mating systems of C. cerastes is data deficient. However, it has been observed that this species typically breeds during the first few weeks of April. In addition, it is assumed that members of the opposite sex locate and attract each other through the use of pheromones.
Copulation is generally observed during the first week of April and always occurs while buried under the sand. It is unknown whether these snakes breed annually. In a case of two captive individuals, copulation lasted for 4 days. Cerastes gasperettii generally oviposits anywhere from 8 to 23 eggs, usually under rocks or in abandoned burrows of reptiles and mammals. The young hatch after a 50 to 80 day incubation period. Juvenile Cerastes gasperettii reach reproductive maturity at 2 years of age.
Breeding interval: The breeding interval for Cerastes gasperettii is unknown.
Breeding season: Sahara horned vipers mate between April and June and eggs hatch from June to August.
Range number of offspring: 8 to 23.
Range gestation period: 50 to 80 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; sexual ; fertilization ; oviparous
There is no information currently available concerning the parental investment of Cerastes gasperettii.
Cerastes cerastes, commonly known as the Saharan horned viper[3] or the desert horned viper,[4] is a venomous species of viper native to the deserts of Northern Africa and parts of the Arabian Peninsula and Levant. It is often easily recognized by the presence of a pair of supraocular "horns", although hornless individuals do occur.[3] Three subspecies have been described.
The average total length (body and tail) is 30–60 cm (12–24 in), with a maximum total length of 85 cm (33 in). Females are larger than males.[3]
One of the most distinctive characteristics of this species is the presence of supraorbital "horns", one over each eye. However, these may be reduced in size or absent (see genus Cerastes).[3] The eyes are prominent and set on the sides of the head.[5] There is significant sexual dimorphism, with males having larger heads and larger eyes than females. Compared to C. gasperettii, the relative head size of C. cerastes is larger and there is a greater frequency of horned individuals (13% versus 48%, respectively).[3][6]
The colour pattern consists of a yellowish, pale grey, pinkish, reddish or pale brown ground colour, which almost always matches the substrate colour where the animal is found. Dorsally, a series of dark, semi-rectangular blotches runs the length of the body. These blotches may or may not be fused into crossbars. The belly is white. The tail, which may have a black tip, is usually thin.[3][5]
Common names of this species include desert sidewinding horned viper,[7] Saharan horned viper,[3] horned s,[4] Sahara horned viper,[5] desert horned viper, North African horned viper,[8] African desert horned viper, greater cerastes,[9] asp and horned viper.[10] In Egypt, it is called el-ṭorîsha (حية الطريشة); in Libya, it is called um-Goron (ام قرون).
The snake is common in Iraq but is also found in Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordan, Israel and Kuwait. They can also be found in parts of North Africa including Libya, Egypt, and Sudan.
A member of this species was reportedly found and killed by locals on the border between the Peshawar and Nowshera districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The incident was reported along with a photo of the dead reptile in 'Aaj', and Urdu-language newspaper published in the provincial capital Peshawar on September 10, 2019.
Originally, the type locality was listed only as "Oriente." However, Flower (1933) proposed "Egypt" by way of clarification.[2]
These snakes favor dry, sandy areas with sparse rock outcroppings, and tend to avoid coarse sand. Occasionally they are found around oases, and up to an altitude of 1,500 metres (4,900 ft). Cooler temperatures, with annual averages of 20 °C (68 °F) or less, are preferred.[3]
They typically move by sidewinding, during which they press their weight into the sand or soil, leaving whole-body impressions. Often, it is even possible to use these impressions to make ventral scale counts. They have a reasonably placid temperament, but if threatened, they may assume a C-shaped posture and rapidly rub their coils together. Because they have strongly keeled scales, this rubbing produces a rasping noise, similar to the sound produced by snakes of the genus Echis. In the wild, they are typically ambush predators, lying submerged in sand adjacent to rocks or under vegetation. The diet of this carnivorous species consists primarily of small rodents, geckos, birds, and a variety of lizards.[11] These vipers are also known to eat jerboas, yellow wagtails, and chiffchaffs.[12] C. cerastes has been known to travel long distances at night in search of prey.[13] When approached, they strike very rapidly, holding on to the captured prey until the venom takes effect.[14]
In captivity, mating was observed in April and always occurred while the animals were buried in the sand.[3] This species is oviparous, laying 8–23 eggs that hatch after 50 to 80 days of incubation. The eggs are laid under rocks and in abandoned rodent burrows. The hatchlings measure 12–15 cm (about 5–6 inches) in total length.[5]
Cerastes cerastes venom is reported to be similar in action to Echis venom.[3] Envenomation usually causes swelling, haemorrhage, necrosis, nausea, vomiting, and haematuria. A high phospholipase A2 content may cause cardiotoxicity and myotoxicity.[5] Studies of venom from both C. cerastes and C. vipera list a total of eight venom fractions, the most powerful of which has haemorrhagic activity. Venom yields vary, with ranges of 19–27 mg to 100 mg of dried venom being reported.[3] For venom toxicity, Brown (1973) gives LD50 values of 0.4 mg/kg IV and 3.0 mg/kg SC.[8] An estimated lethal dose for humans is 40–50 mg.[5]
A number of subspecies have been described:[3]
Previously, C. gasperettii was also regarded as a subspecies of C. cerastes.[3]
Cerastes cerastes, commonly known as the Saharan horned viper or the desert horned viper, is a venomous species of viper native to the deserts of Northern Africa and parts of the Arabian Peninsula and Levant. It is often easily recognized by the presence of a pair of supraocular "horns", although hornless individuals do occur. Three subspecies have been described.
