This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g. [56,58,65]).
White sagebrush is a native perennial forb or small shrub [103,119]. Stems seldom branch and are loosely clustered or solitary [59,119,131]. Though generally erect [119], alpine subspecies (e.g., A. l. subsp. incompta) may be decumbent compared to the more upright forms found at lower elevations [118]. White sagebrush grows 0.5 to 3 feet (0.15-1.0 m) tall [43,46,56,103,119,132] and has alternate, irregularly toothed leaves [119]. The inflorescence is a narrow, open to dense panicle reaching 2 to 12 inches (5-30 cm) in length. The many nodding flower heads are <7 mm in diameter [56,132]. Seeds are small achenes [123].
White sagebrush is often densely aggregated in pure stands 6.5 to 10 feet (2-3 m) in diameter, with all stalks connected by underground stems or rhizomes [36,56,59,69,96,103,119,131] that thicken with age. White sagebrush rhizomes and dense, coarse roots are generally found between 1 and 5.5 inches (2.5-14 cm) deep [96,118]. Root branching in the fibrous root system is so interlaced that a firm mesh forms in the upper 2 inches (5 cm) of soil [96,113]. White sagebrush roots may reach 27.5 inches (70 cm) deep [143].
Roots may be colonized by mycorrhizae [136]; when colonized, ramet growth rates and biomass are reduced, resulting in a reduction in size and density of white sagebrush [137]. Root nodulation is inconsistent [38,118,139], and it is difficult to confirm any significant degree of nitrogen fixation [118].
Fire adaptations: When top-killed by fire, white sagebrush may sprout from the bases of shoots and from rhizomes [93,98]. Some subspecies reproduce aggressively by spreading rhizomes, while others have weaker rhizomes [118].
FIRE REGIMES: White sagebrush is found in a wide variety of habitat types and plant communities, so FIRE REGIMES also vary widely. No specific information regarding the interaction between white sagebrush and different FIRE REGIMES was found in the available literature. However, based on prescribed fire studies, frequent fire may substantially reduce white sagebrush on a site. For more information on the effects of frequent burning, see Fire Management Considerations.
The following list provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where white sagebrush occurs. It may not be inclusive. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) bluestem prairie Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 71,100] Nebraska sandhills prairie A. g. var. paucipilus-Schizachyrium scoparium 100] silver sagebrush steppe Artemisia cana 5-45 [55,102,138] sagebrush steppe A. tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata 20-70 [100] basin big sagebrush A. t. var. tridentata 12-43 [110] mountain big sagebrush A. t. var. vaseyana 15-40 [6,20,88] Wyoming big sagebrush A. t. var. wyomingensis 10-70 (40**) [126,142] saltbush-greasewood Atriplex confertifolia-Sarcobatus vermiculatus < 35 to < 100 desert grasslands Bouteloua eriopoda and/or Pleuraphis mutica 5-100 [100] plains grasslands Bouteloua spp. 100,138] blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass B. gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii 100,107,138] blue grama-buffalo grass B. g.-Buchloe dactyloides 100,138] California montane chaparral Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. 50-100 [100] curlleaf mountain-mahogany* Cercocarpus ledifolius 13-1,000 [8,111] mountain-mahogany-Gambel oak scrub C. l.-Quercus gambelii < 35 to < 100 blackbrush Coleogyne ramosissima < 35 to < 100 Arizona cypress Cupressus arizonica < 35 to 200 juniper-oak savanna Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana < 35 Ashe juniper J. ashei < 35 western juniper J. occidentalis 20-70 Rocky Mountain juniper J. scopulorum 100] cedar glades J. virginiana 3-22 [49,100] wheatgrass plains grasslands Pascopyrum smithii 100,102,138] Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa 35 to > 200 [5] pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. 100] Mexican pinyon P. cembroides 20-70 [91,120] Colorado pinyon P. edulis 10-400+ [40,45,66,100] Jeffrey pine P. jeffreyi 5-30 [5] interior ponderosa pine* P. ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [5,10,75] Arizona pine P. p. var. arizonica 2-15 [10,27,112] eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides 100] quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) P. tremuloides 7-120 [5,48,82] mountain grasslands Pseudoroegneria spicata 3-40 (10**) [4,5] Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 25-100 [5,6,7] California mixed evergreen P. m. var. menziesii-Lithocarpus densiflorus-Arbutus menziesii < 35 California oakwoods Quercus spp. 5] oak-hickory Quercus-Carya spp. 129] oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) Quercus-Juniperus spp. 100] northern pin oak Q. ellipsoidalis < 35 bear oak Q. ilicifolia 129] California black oak Q. kelloggii 5-30 [100] bur oak Q. macrocarpa < 10 oak savanna Q. m./Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 2-14 [100,129] chestnut oak Q. prinus 3-8 post oak-blackjack oak Q. stellata-Q. marilandica < 10 black oak Q. velutina 129] interior live oak Q. wislizenii 5] little bluestem-grama prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Bouteloua spp. 100] elm-ash-cottonwood Ulmus-Fraxinus-Populus spp. 35,129] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species reviewDue to its broad geographical distribution, white sagebrush is found on a wide range of sites. It grows on upland areas including rangeland, pastures, roadsides, shrublands, and open woods [87,119], as well as in valley bottoms [29], riparian areas [51,87] and other moist or mesic sites [28,78]. On drier sites in plains grassland or sagebrush communities, white sagebrush may be restricted to more mesic streambanks and floodplains [28,78,101]. In field experiments, white sagebrush was "somewhat tolerant" of periodic flooding [83,84].
White sagebrush is found on a wide range of soil types [118,119]. It is common on sandy to gravelly or stony sites, including scree slopes and rockslides [56,87,131,141]. White sagebrush is frequently found on exposed ridges and sites free of snow accumulation [118]. It is also found on silty soils, and may occur on soils with high lime content, though not abundantly [106].
The following table presents the elevational range of white sagebrush in the western United States:
California 11,500 feet (<3500 m) [56,87] Colorado 3,500-10,000 ft (1,060-3,050 m) [52] Nevada 2,500-9,500 ft (760-2,900 m) [64] New Mexico 7,200-8,700 ft (2,200-2,600 m) [50] Utah 2,460-11,500 ft (750-3,500 m) [132]White sagebrush may be very important summer forage for pronghorn [11]. Though it is not preferred [81], white-tailed deer graze white sagebrush in winter [11]. It is also lightly browsed by mule deer [68,73,95], especially in the fall and winter [77,79,135]. Elk graze white sagebrush [95], and this plant may be of particular importance as elk forage in the Northern Great Plains. One study found white sagebrush comprised 40% to 50% of elk rumen content in the fall and winter [140]. However, it probably does not cure well; wintering animals normally consume only green tissue [118].
Greater sage-grouse use white sagebrush for summer food and cover [105,130].
White sagebrush is an important food source for grasshoppers [70]. It is an almost exclusive host for the specialist grasshopper Hypochlora alba [17,18,69,76]. It is also the only known host of the fruit fly Eutreta simplex [44].
Palatability/nutritional value: White sagebrush palatability has been rated poor to fair for domestic cattle, sheep, and horses in Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. Palatability domestic sheep is rated good in Utah [32].
A study by Bezeau and Johnston [15] found 5.8% average digestible protein in white sagebrush samples. The table below summarizes chemical analysis of white sagebrush from Arizona chaparral [125]:
Crude protein (%) Ca (%) P (%) 9 0.64 0.32Average chemical composition of white sagebrush in Alberta rough fescue grassland at 3 different stages of white sagebrush growth is summarized in the following table [61]:
Stage of growth Protein (%) Crude fat (%) Crude fiber (%) Ca (%) P (%) Carotene mg/kg) leaf 15.40 2.85 25.20 0.90 0.23 42.75 heading 10.55 5.10 26.80 0.90 0.17 37.40 seed-ripe 8.87 4.30 29.17 0.97 0.16 25.30Cover value: Cover value of white sagebrush has been rated poor to fair for big game animals, upland game birds, nongame birds, and waterfowl. It has been rated as good cover for small mammals in Utah, though rated poor elsewhere [32].
White sagebrush occurs is a broadly distributed species that occurs in a wide range
of plant communities. Associates in communities where white sagebrush is most
common are briefly identified below, followed by a discussion of plant
communities in which white sagebrush occurs as a dominant.
Sagebrush ecosystems:
White sagebrush commonly occurs in sagebrush (Artemisia subsp.) communities.
Shrub and tree associates include big sagebrush (A. tridentata), black
sagebrush (A. nova), fringed sagebrush (A. frigida), shadscale
saltbush (Atriplex confertifolia), curlleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus
ledifolius), rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), green
rabbitbrush (C. viscidiflorus), antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata),
Rocky mountain juniper (Juniperus
scopulorum), western juniper (J. occidentalis), interior ponderosa
pine (Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum), Jeffrey pine (P.
jeffreyi), and several oaks (Quercus spp.). Herbaceous understory associates include Indian
ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis),
buckwheat (Eriogonum spp.), ephedra (Ephedra spp.), Idaho fescue (Festuca
idahoensis), rough fescue (Festuca altaica), needle-and-thread grass
(Hesperostipa comata), prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha),
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa
secunda), plains bluegrass (P. arida), and bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria
spicata) [37,72,115].
Chaparral-mountain shrub ecosystems:
Common tree and shrub associates in
these plant communities include alligator juniper (J. deppeana), oneseed
juniper (J. monosperma), Utah juniper (J. osteosperma), Mexican
pinyon (Pinus cembroides), Arizona white oak (Q. arizonica),
canyon live oak (Q. chrysolepis), Emory oak (Q. emoryi), Gambel
oak (Q. gambelii), silverleaf oak (Q. hypoleucoides),
Mexican blue oak (Q. oblongifolia), shrub live oak (Q. turbinella),
interior live oak (Q. wislizenii), chamise (Adenostoma
fasciculatum), manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), ceanothus (Ceanothus
spp.), bush chinquapin (Chrysolepsis sempervirens), curlleaf mountain-mahogany , birchleaf mountain-mahogany (C.
betuloides),
bigtooth maple (Acer grandidentatum), and bittercherry (Prunus
emarginata). Understory associates include sideoats grama (B.
curtipendula), hairy grama (B. hirsuta), and eastern Mojave buckwheat
(Eriogonum fasciculatum) [37,72,115].
Plains grasslands:
White sagebrush is particularly common in plains and prairie
grassland communities. In plains grasslands, associates include Indian ricegrass,
crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), desert wheatgrass (A.
desertorum), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii), sand bluestem (A.
g. var. paucipilus), blue grama, sideoats grama, hairy grama,
black grama (B. eriopoda), buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides),
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), oatgrass (Danthonia spp.),
Canada wildrye (Elymus canadensis), thickspike wheatgrass (E.
lanceolatus), rough fescue, prairie Junegrass, needle-and-thread grass,
porcupine grass (H. spartea), green needlegrass (Nassella viridula),
tobosa (Pleuraphis mutica), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis),
western wheatgrass, bluebunch wheatgrass, little bluestem (Schizachyrium
scoparium), and alkali sacaton (Sporobolus airoides). Woody plants
commonly occurring in these communities include fringed sagebrush, sand
sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia), fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens),
Ashe juniper (J. ashei), eastern redcedar (J. virginiana)
winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata ), blackjack oak (Q. marilandica),
post oak (Q. stellata), and live oak (Q. virginiana) [72,115].
Prairie grasslands: In prairie communities, common associates include
threeawns (Aristida spp.), big bluestem, sand bluestem, blue grama, hairy
grama, sideoats grama, buffalo grass, prairie sandreed, needle-and-thread grass,
porcupine grass, prairie Junegrass, switchgrass (Panicum
virgatum), little bluestem, indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), prairie
dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), and giant dropseed (S. giganteus).
Common woody associates are big sagebrush, black sagebrush, sand sagebrush,
rubber rabbitbrush, green rabbitbrush, winterfat, saltbushes (Atriplex
spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), eastern redcedar, eastern cottonwood (Populus
deltoides), post oak, blackjack oak, and black oak (Q. velutina)
[37,72,115].
White sagebrush usually occurs in scattered amounts and does not dominate extensive
areas [118], though it may form dense stands locally in grassland communities
[36]. White sagebrush may be dominant
in Wyoming, commonly codominating forb communities with tobacco root (Valeriana
edulis) [24,47]. This forb community is often found near
subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) habitat types. Other associates in the
white sagebrush-tobacco root community type are Idaho fescue, Rocky Mountain
goldenrod (Solidago multiradiata), thickstem aster (Eurybia
integrifolia), sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum),
slender cinquefoil (Potentilla gracilis), elkweed (Frasera speciosa),
and spike trisetum (Trisetum spicatum) [47]. In Alberta, white sagebrush may codominate with western wheatgrass. Other common associates in this
community are riverbank sedge (Carex stenoptila), Kentucky bluegrass,
curlycup gumweed (Grindelia squarrosa), and desert goosefoot (Chenopodium
pratericola) [128]. White sagebrush is noted as a "differential species" in
mixed-grass (Kentucky bluegrass dominant) and tallgrass (big bluestem dominant)
prairie communities. In the mixed-grass community, other associates include
western wheatgrass and smooth brome (Bromus inermis), while little
bluestem is common in the tallgrass community [85].
Vegetation classifications identifying white sagebrush as a plant
community dominant are listed below:
Native Americans burned white sagebrush for incense [119] and ceremonial purposes [53,109]. Other Native American uses included roofing houses and wattling walls [12]. In cooking, they used white sagebrush to flavor meat [22].
Native American medicinal uses included treatment for sore throats, stomach ailments, and difficulty in childbirth [109,119]. White sagebrush leaves were also crushed and used as snuff to treat sinus attacks, nosebleeds, and headaches [53]. Tea made with white sagebrush was used in Mexican traditional medicine to alleviate intestinal pain [108]. An essential oil extracted from white sagebrush (A. l. subsp. mexicana) has been demonstrated to give symptomatic relief of diarrhea [144]. Extracts of white sagebrush have antifungal properties [80].
White sagebrush reproduces both vegetatively and by seed, with vegetative reproduction very common [54].
Breeding system: White sagebrush is monoecious [118].
Pollination: White sagebrush is self- and wind pollinated [57,118].
Seed production: Most subspecies produce seed "adequately" [118]. The outer florets of white sagebrush are usually sterile, while the inner florets are usually fertile [119].
Seed dispersal: White sagebrush seeds are spread by wind, gravity, and water [123].
Seed banking: white sagebrush seed can last 4 to 6 years in warehouse storage [114]. As of this writing (2005), there is no information on viability of soil-stored seed.
Germination: No information is available on this topic. For information on artificial germination of white sagebrush, see Management Considerations.
Seedling establishment/growth: White sagebrush dies back at the end of the season, so annual production is equivalent to total aboveground mass at the end of the growing season [54,118].
Asexual regeneration: White sagebrush forms new aerial shoots from the bases of earlier shoots and from slender horizontal rhizomes [93,98]. Some subspecies reproduce aggressively by spreading rhizomes, while others express weaker rhizomes [118,123]. When strongly rhizomatous, white sagebrush can form colonies up to 50 feet (15 m) in diameter. A study in Montana found that on wet sites colonies advanced in all directions, but on dry sites colonies increased in diameter only in wet microsites (e.g. drainage depressions) [54].
White sagebrush establishes well from cuttings, transplants, and direct seeding [118]. It is recommended for revegetating riparian areas in forest, mountain brush, sagebrush, and desert shrub communities [92], and is considered useful for revegetating roadcuts and for erosion control [54,98]. The dense root mass is good for reducing erosion and encourages other species to invade the stabilized space [118]. Field studies suggest a high degree of success can be expected with white sagebrush transplanting [116], and stalks may grow 3 feet (1 m) tall by the end of summer after spring transplanting [96]. If seeded, white sagebrush may establish in greater density when seeded with perennial grass mixtures [23].
White sagebrush seeds germinate well in the laboratory at 59-77 oF (15-25 oC) [86]. Eddleman [36] found germination was highest at both 68 oF (20 oC) constant and 68/41 oF (20/5 oC) alternating temperatures, with germination improved by 3-month stratification. Other laboratory experiments conducted at 59 oF have found up to 95% germination in petri dishes, and 69% germination in soil tests. On filter paper, the following germination rates were achieved at different temperatures [54]:
Temperature Germination (%) 59 oF (15 oC) 56 68 oF (20 oC) 87 72 oF (22 oC) 90One laboratory analysis, however, found seed viability of white sagebrush was only 34.6% [23].
Artemisia ludoviciana is a North American species of flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae, known by several common names, including silver wormwood, western mugwort, Louisiana wormwood, white sagebrush, lobed cud-weed, prairie sage, and gray sagewort.[2][3][4][5]
Ludoviciana is the Latinized version of the word Louisiana.[6]
Artemisia ludoviciana is a rhizomatous perennial growing to heights of 0.3–1.0 m (0.98–3.28 ft). The stems bear linear leaves up to 11 cm long. The stems and foliage are covered in woolly gray or white hairs. The top of the stem is occupied by a narrow inflorescence of many nodding (hanging) flower heads. Each small head is a cup of hairy phyllaries surrounding a center of yellowish disc florets and is about 0.5 cm wide. The fruit is a minute achene. Flowers bloom July to October.[7]
The plant is native to North America where it is widespread across most of the United States, Canada, and Mexico.[2][3][8][9] Some botanists suggest that eastern United States populations have been introduced from the western and central part of the continent.[10] Its habitats include dry slopes, canyons, open pine woods, and dry prairies.[7]
Indigenous tribes across the continent use the species as a medicinal plant, a source of fiber for crafting household items, and for ceremonial purposes.[12] The Dakota people use this plant in smudging rituals to protect against maleficent spirits. The Apache, Chiricahua and Mescalero use it for spices,[13] while Blackfoot tribe use it as a drug for dermatological use.[14] The Cree and Blackfoot tribes use it in sweat lodges and the sun dance.[5] Gros Ventre also use it for skin curing and as medicine against cold, because it is also antipyretic.[15] The Meskwaki and Potawatomi use a tea made from this species as a treatment for sore throat and tonsillitis.[4]
A. ludoviciana is cultivated as an ornamental plant.[16] Being rhizomatous, it can spread aggressively in some climates and gardens. It grows in dry to medium moisture and well-drained soil. It requires full sun.[6]
Popular cultivars include 'Valerie Finnis' and 'Silver Queen'. Both are hardy to USDA zone 4. 'Valerie Finnis' has held the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit since 1993.[17]
A. l. subsp. albula, Spring Mountains, southern Nevada, elevation around 1,050 m Artemisia ludoviciana is a North American species of flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae, known by several common names, including silver wormwood, western mugwort, Louisiana wormwood, white sagebrush, lobed cud-weed, prairie sage, and gray sagewort.
Ludoviciana is the Latinized version of the word Louisiana.
