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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 14.8 years (captivity) Observations: They stop growing after about 2 months. One specimen lived 14.8 years in captivity (Richard Weigl 2005).
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Untitled

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Pleistocene-Holocene fossils of pallid bats are found in Arizona, New Mexico, and California.

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Weber, K. 2009. "Antrozous pallidus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Antrozous_pallidus.html
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Katie Weber, University of Alaska Fairbanks
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Behavior

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Pallid bats locate other members of their group using vocalizations. Once they locate each other they congregate in a roosting area before reentering torpor. There are four main calls used when individuals are locating one another: a directive call that is used to find one another, squabble notes used to space bats when roosting, a buzzing used in agonistic intraspecific encounters, and ultrasonic orientation pulses for communicating exploratory activity to other individuals.

Pallid bats use echolocation to navigate and to find flying prey. They also use their large ears to detect the sounds of prey on the ground, such as the sound of a beetle moving across the ground.

Communication Channels: acoustic ; chemical

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; ultrasound ; echolocation ; vibrations ; chemical

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Conservation Status

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The IUCN Red List status for Antrozous pallidus is Least Concern. This is mainly due to their widespread distribution and presumed large population. They occur in many protected areas, leading researchers to believe that populations are unlikely to decline in the foreseeable future. They have been placed at low risk to least concern in the past. These bats are susceptible to mild disturbances which cause them to abandon their roosting sites. Humans also may disrupt their prey species with pesticides, offsetting prey populations. Wildlife managers are taking action to manage and monitor habitat to avoid disturbance.

Temperate North American bats are now threatened by a fungal disease called “white-nose syndrome.” This disease has devastated eastern North American bat populations at hibernation sites since 2007. The fungus, Geomyces destructans, grows best in cold, humid conditions that are typical of many bat hibernacula. The fungus grows on, and in some cases invades, the bodies of hibernating bats and seems to result in disturbance from hibernation, causing a debilitating loss of important metabolic resources and mass deaths. Mortality rates at some hibernation sites have been as high as 90%. While there are currently no reports of Antrozous pallidus mortalities as a result of white-nose syndrome, the disease continues to move westward across North America.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Benefits

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Pallid bats roost in man-made structures, causing occasional damage from droppings or odor problems. This is also a problem because bats, along with other mammals, carry rabies virus. Although transmission of rabies to humans is rare, roost proximity to human habitation may be a concern.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease)

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Benefits

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Pallid bats eat many insects, reducing the population size of pest insects.

Positive Impacts: research and education; controls pest population

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Associations

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Pallid bats play an important role as predators of desert insects. Pallid bats visit flowers in their hunt for insects, and are natural, indirect pollinators of several species of cactus.

Ecosystem Impact: pollinates

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Trophic Strategy

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Pallid bats have a unique foraging pattern among North American bats. They fly low to the ground (about 15 to 76 centimeters), then dip and rise in swoops in order to grab ground-dwelling prey or slow-flying prey. This pattern allows them to use passive hearing to hear their prey on the ground. They may drop to the ground to grab large, ground-dwelling prey. They also forage for insects among leaves and flowers. They will take smaller prey in the air using echolocation. Pallid bats take larger prey back to their roosts and remove hard parts, such as wings, legs, and heads, from prey before eating them. Pallid bats have two nightly foraging periods with a roosting time in between. They prey mainly on large flying and ground-dwelling insects, including beetles (Coleoptera), crickets, katydids, and grasshoppers (Orthoptera, including Jerusalem crickets Stenopelmatus fuscus), cicadas (Homoptera), moths (Lepidoptera), spiders (Araneae), scorpions (Scorpiones), centipedes (Chilopoda). They sometimes take small lizards and mice.

Animal Foods: mammals; reptiles; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )

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Weber, K. 2009. "Antrozous pallidus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Antrozous_pallidus.html
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Distribution

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Pallid bats range from southern British Columbia through Montana to central Mexico. They occur from the Okanagan valley in British Columbia, south through eastern Washington, Oregon, and California to Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Queretaro, and Nuevo Leon in Mexico. They are found as far east as western Texas, Oklahoma, southern Kansas, southern Wyoming, and southern Idaho. There is a disjunct population on the island of Cuba.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

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Habitat

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Pallid bats are also called desert bats because they are mostly found in desert habitats. They roost in a variety of places but favor rocky outcrops. They also occur in oak and pine forested areas and open farmland. Roosting sites are variable, depending on what is available. They can be found roosting in caves, rock crevices, mines, hollow trees, and buildings. Pallid bats in Oregon have been documented roosting in rock piles, piles of burlap sacks, and hollow trees. They use day roosts that are semi-dark, as long as there is some sort of cover. Night roosts for resting between feeding intervals are near day roosts, but are not the same as day roosts. Pallid bats prefer darkness, shelter from wind and rain, and an easy escape if they are disturbed. Roosts are usually near a source of water, but this does not appear to be a main requirement for roosting locations. Winter roost locations are not well known for A. pallidus. Specimens captured in Oregon during the winter were not anywhere near summer roosting sites. Winter specimens were found in narrow crevices; this may contribute to the difficulty of locating these individuals in the winter. A study done by Vaughan and O’Shea (1976) showed that pallid bats arrive in Arizona sometime around March or April and then depart again in November. They were observed using vertical and overhanging cliff crevices, but during the hottest part of the day they were found to move to deeper, cooler crevices to maintain a more suitable body temperature.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest ; scrub forest

Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural ; caves

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Life Expectancy

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Individuals of A. pallidus in the wild have been known to live for at least nine years and captive populations have had individuals live for up to eleven years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
9 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
11 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
9.1 years.

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Weber, K. 2009. "Antrozous pallidus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Antrozous_pallidus.html
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Morphology

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Adults range from 60 to 85 mm long from head to tail. The tail can be 35 to 57 mm alone. Forearm length is 45 to 60 mm long and body weight ranges from 17 to 28 grams. Their fur has a woolly feel with a cream-yellow to light brown color on the dorsum and very pale to white color on the venter. This species has a U-shaped ridge on the top of the muzzle with the nostrils located underneath the ridge on the front of its muzzle. The face has small wart-like pararhinal glands that produce a skunk-like odor, which is thought to be used as defense mechanism. The ears are large with a long, pointed tragus; the tragus is half as long as the ear itself. Their ears have serrated outer edges that are not joined at the base. They have a high brain case with a rostrum that is greater than the half the length of the skull and have a dental formula: I 1/2, C 1/1, P 1/2, M 3/3, with a total of 28 teeth. There is a geographical color variation in pallid bats and this genus has six subspecies; A. p. pallidus, A. p. bunkeri, A. p. koopmani, A. p. minor, A. p. obscurus, A. p. pacificus, and A. p. packardi.

Range mass: 17 to 28 g.

Range length: 60 to 85 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

Average basal metabolic rate: 0.104 W.

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Associations

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Pallid bats feed on the ground, which makes them vulnerable to terrestrial predators and injury. Terrestrial predators may include snakes, cats, foxes, coyotes, and raccoons. Adult and young bats are mainly preyed on by snakes or crepuscular and nocturnal raptors, mainly owls.

Known Predators:

  • snakes (Serpentes)
  • owls (Strigiformes)
  • domestic cats (Felis catus)
  • foxes (Vulpes)
  • coyotes (Canis latrans)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

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Weber, K. 2009. "Antrozous pallidus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Antrozous_pallidus.html
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Reproduction

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Males in California undergo an increase in testes size during the month of August until September and then regress by mid-October. Males are present in nursery colonies as well as in separate single-sex groups. Breeding takes place in early October and continues sporadically throughout the winter. Bats in captivity mate in October and November, some have been observed mating in January and February. In captivity, mated females ovulate and become pregnant with an increase in ambient temperature. Ambient temperature may effect when wild populations produce young, especially if the seasonal temperatures are changing from year to year.

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Females can retain the sperm in the uterus throughout the winter until spring when fertilization occurs. The gestation period lasts from 53 to 71 days and young are born between May and June. They usually have twins, but about 20 percent of births are single. Birth weight is near 3 grams. The young open their eyes about five days after their birth and begin to fly at 4 to 5 weeks after birth. At 6 to 8 weeks after birth they are weaned and are able to breed in their first year.

Breeding interval: Breeding occurs once yearly.

Breeding season: Pallid bats breed beginning in October and throughout the winter.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 3.

Range gestation period: 53 to 71 days.

Range weaning age: 6 to 8 weeks.

Average time to independence: 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous ; sperm-storing ; delayed fertilization

Average birth mass: 3.1 g.

Average number of offspring: 2.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
365 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
365 days.

The young are born in an altricial state. They have closed eyes and their ears are folded against the head with a few hairs visible only under magnification. The mothers will carry the young during her foraging flights for the first few days after birth. Females only lactate for 2 to 3 months and do not nurse young that are not their own. The young have recurved cusps on their deciduous teeth. This allows the young to grasp the nipple of the females in order to prevent detatchment in flight. Mothers will stay with their young for 12 months after the young are flying on their own. This is also when most will fly in family groups of two or three when returning to their day roost. The day roosts may not always be the same place, allowing the young bats to learn how to seek out the vocal calls when the colony swarms around the chosen day roost sight. Males do not care for offspring.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); extended period of juvenile learning

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Pallid bat

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The pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus) is a species of bat that ranges from western Canada to central Mexico. It is the sole species of its genus and is closely related to Van Gelder's bat (Bauerus dubiaquercus), which is sometimes included in Antrozous.[3] Although it has in the past been placed in its own subfamily (Antrozoinae) or even family (Antrozoidae), it is now considered part of the subfamily Vespertilioninae and the tribe Antrozoini.[4]

Description

Pallid bats have a head and body length of approximately 2.75 inches (6.2-7.9 cm), forearm length of approximately 2.1 inches (4.5–6 cm),[5] a tail of approximately 1.75 inches (3.9-4.9 cm), and a wingspan of 15-16 inches (38–40 cm).[6][7] They weigh 14-25 grams. These bats are large, with long forward pointing ears (over 2.5 cm). Fur is pale at the roots, brown on their back, with a light underside. Pallid bats have a blunt piglike snout.[6] The dental formula for pallid bats is 1.1.1.32.1.2.3 × 2 = 28.[5] The bacula of pallid bats are wedge or spade-shaped, generally with a short narrow base which widens and then tapers towards the tip. The bone also has a characteristic downward 'dip' around the midpoint, with a raised base and tip.[8]

Ecology

A colony of roosting A. pallidus at Madera Canyon, Santa Rita Mountains, southeastern Arizona

Pallid bats are typically found in arid or semi-arid habitats, often in mountainous or rocky areas near water. They are also found over open, sparsely vegetated grasslands. During the day time, pallid bats typically roost in cracks and crevices, which may include tile roofs, exfoliating bark of trees, or rocky outcrops. During the night, this species will often use a night roost that is closer to their foraging grounds than their day roost. A night roost is usually less protected than a day roost; open porches may be used as night roosts by this species. In the winter time, this species may dip into shallow bouts of torpor, often in buildings, caves, or cracks in rocks.[1]

Pallid bats are insectivores that feed on arthropods such as crickets, and are capable of consuming up to half their weight in insect every night. Pallid bats are gleaners, capturing prey from the ground and transporting it to their night roost for consumption. When foraging, pallid bats typically fly at low heights of 1–2 m off the ground.[6][1] Pallid bats most notably consume Arizona bark scorpions, which are the most venomous scorpions in North America: their stings can be fatal to humans. Pallid bats were found to have one or more missense mutations that substitute amino acids in their voltage-gated sodium channels, which may be responsible for their resistance to scorpion venom.[9] Although pallid bats are primarily insectivores, they exhibit some flexibility in their diet when seasonally feeding on Mexican columnar cacti (particularly cardón cactus) nectar in spring,[10] and even cactus fruit in summer.[11] Pallid bats are also more effective pollinators than some of the nectarivorous bats with whom they compete for cacti.[12]

Pallid bats are a unique bat species because they are heterothermic, meaning they can be either poikilothermic or homoeothermic depending on the time of year. They have the ability to control their body temperature and equilibrate it with the environment during winter hibernation and whenever they rest.[13]

Pallid bat size varies greatly depending on their habitat. Bats in areas of low primary productivity, such as the desert, tend to be smaller due to less availability of resources. The bats that reside in areas with more primary productivity, such as coastal regions tend to be on the larger side. Larger pallid bats also have craniums that allow them to eat larger, harder prey more easily.[14]

Behavior and natural history

Wingspan of the pallid bat

The mating season ranges from October to February, when the bats are in hibernation. Male bats store sperm in the spring and summer, a process driven by changes in melatonin as a response to decreasing daylight hours. Copulation occurs in autumn and females store the sperm until spring, when they emerge from hibernation and go through estrus.[15] The female bat gives birth to one or two pups during early June; they weigh about 3 to 3.5 g (0.11 to 0.12 oz) at birth and in four or five weeks are capable of making short flights. Pups are weaned after 40 to 45 days.[16] They do not attain adult size until about eight weeks of age, and do not become sexually mature until after around two years.

Like the majority of bat species, pallid bats are capable of using echolocation while foraging and traveling from their roost sites to foraging grounds. However, they may also opt to not echolocate while foraging, and instead use their large ears to locate insects on the ground.[17] As gleaners, they primarily rely on auditory cues produced by prey instead of echolocation to hunt. The rise of anthropogenic noise pollution, such as traffic, in their habitats is negatively impacting their foraging and can reduce efficiency by up to 3 times.[18]

Pallid bats have been identified in the fossil record from late Pleistocene deposits in the western United States and Cuba.[5]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Arroyo-Cabrales, J.; de Grammont, P.C. (2017). "Antrozous pallidus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T1790A22129152. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T1790A22129152.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. ^ Simmons, Nancy B. (1998). T.H. Kunz; P.A. Racey (eds.). "A reappraisal of interfamilial relationships of bats". Bat Biology and Conservation: 3–26.
  3. ^ Simmons, Nancy B. (2005). "Order Chiroptera". In Wilson, Don E.; Reeder, DeeAnn M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 498–499. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0.
  4. ^ Roehrs, Z.P.; Lack, J.B.; Van Den Bussche, R.A. (2010). "Tribal phylogenetic relationships within Vespertilioninae (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data". Journal of Mammalogy. 91 (5): 1073–1092. doi:10.1644/09-MAMM-A-325.1.
  5. ^ a b c Hermanson, John W.; O'Shea, Thomas J. (15 December 1983). "Antrozous pallidus". Mammalian Species (213): 1–8. doi:10.2307/3503896. ISSN 0076-3519. JSTOR 3503896.
  6. ^ a b c Reid, Fionna (2006). Mammals of North America. Peterson Field Guides. pp. 423–424. ISBN 978-0395935965.
  7. ^ "Animal Fact Sheet: Pallid bat". Desert Museum.
  8. ^ Krutzsch, Philip H.; Vaughan, Terry A. (1955). "Additional Data on the Bacula of North American Bats". Journal of Mammalogy. 36 (1): 96–100. doi:10.2307/1375727. JSTOR 1375727.
  9. ^ Hopp, B. H.; Arvidson, R. S.; Adams, M. E.; Razak, K. A. (2017). "Arizona bark scorpion venom resistance in the pallid bat, Antrozous pallidus". PLOS ONE. 12 (8): e0183215. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1283215H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183215. PMC 5576675. PMID 28854259.
  10. ^ Frick, Winifred F.; Heady, Paul A.; Hayes, John P. (15 October 2009). "Facultative Nectar-Feeding Behavior in a Gleaning Insectivorous Bat (Antrozous pallidus)". Journal of Mammalogy. 90 (5): 1157–1164. doi:10.1644/09-mamm-a-001.1. ISSN 0022-2372.
  11. ^ Aliperti, Jaclyn R.; Kelt, Douglas A.; Heady, Paul A.; Frick, Winifred F. (21 March 2017). "Using behavioral and stable isotope data to quantify rare dietary plasticity in a temperate bat". Journal of Mammalogy. 98 (2): 340–349. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyw196. ISSN 0022-2372.
  12. ^ Frick, Winifred F.; Price, Ryan D.; Heady III, Paul A.; Kay, Kathleen M. (3 December 2012). "Insectivorous bat pollinates columnar cactus more effectively per visit than specialized nectar bat". The American Naturalist. 181 (1): 137–144. doi:10.1086/668595. PMID 23234851. S2CID 31277235.
  13. ^ "Antrozous pallidus pallid bat". Animal Diversity Web.
  14. ^ Kelly, Rochelle M.; Friedman, Rachel; Santana, Sharlene E. (1 June 2018). "Primary productivity explains size variation across the Pallid bat's western geographic range". Functional Ecology. 32 (6): 1520–1530. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13092. ISSN 1365-2435. S2CID 91099486.
  15. ^ Beasley, L. J.; Smale, L.; Smith, E. R. (March 1984). "Melatonin influences the reproductive physiology of male pallid bats". Biology of Reproduction. 30 (2): 300–305. doi:10.1095/biolreprod30.2.300. ISSN 0006-3363. PMID 6704467.
  16. ^ Bassett, John E. (31 May 1984). "Litter Size and Postnatal Growth Rate in the Pallid Bat, Antrozous pallidus". Journal of Mammalogy. 65 (2): 317–319. doi:10.2307/1381170. ISSN 0022-2372. JSTOR 1381170.
  17. ^ "California Wildlife Habitat Relationships System -- Pallid Bat".
  18. ^ Bunkley, Jessie Patrice; Barber, Jesse Rex (1 November 2015). "Noise Reduces Foraging Efficiency in Pallid Bats (Antrozous pallidus)". Ethology. 121 (11): 1116–1121. doi:10.1111/eth.12428. ISSN 1439-0310.

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Pallid bat: Brief Summary

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The pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus) is a species of bat that ranges from western Canada to central Mexico. It is the sole species of its genus and is closely related to Van Gelder's bat (Bauerus dubiaquercus), which is sometimes included in Antrozous. Although it has in the past been placed in its own subfamily (Antrozoinae) or even family (Antrozoidae), it is now considered part of the subfamily Vespertilioninae and the tribe Antrozoini.

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