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Afrotheria

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The monophyly of the placental mammal clade Afrotheria--whose living representatives are the Aardvark (order Tubulidentata), elephant-shrews or sengis (order Macroscelidea), golden moles (family Chrysochloridae), tenrecs (family Tenrecidae), sea cows (order Sirenia), hyraxes (order Hyracoidea), and elephants (order Proboscidea)--is now strongly supported by diverse types of data.

Two of the groups now recognized to be part of Afrotheria were previously included in the order "Insectivora". In the mid-1990s, however, molecular phylogenetic analyses (Springer et al. 1997; Stanhope et al. 1998) indicated that the traditional mammalian order Insectivora--consisting of the families Soricidae (shrews), Tenrecidae (tenrecs), Solenodontidae (solenodons), Talpidae (moles), Erinaceidae (hedgehogs and gymnures), and Chrysochloridae (golden moles)--is not actually monophyletic. Rather, the tenrecs and golden moles (both of which are endemic to Africa and together form a clade often referred to as "Afrosoricida") are part of the Afrotheria. See Seiffer (2007) and Kuntner et al. (2011) for a review of the molecular phylogenetic support for Afrotheria and insights about relationships within this clade. Asher et al. (2009) discuss Afrotheria in the broader context of the now well established higher level phylogeny of mammals.

Morphological data have not supported the monophyly as clearly as have molecular data (see Tabuce et al. 2008 for discussion), although the clade known as Paenungulata (sea cows, hyraxes, and elephants) was named in 1945, long before the era of molecular phylogenetics, by the American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson. Recent paleontological/morphological studies concur with molecular ones in grouping the paenungulates, aardvarks, and sengis.

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Afrotheria ( Afrikaans )

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Die superorde Afrotheria (Stanhope et al. 1998) is een van die vier hoofgroepe van die plasentale kroon-Eutheria. Hierdie soogdiere het op die Afrika-kontinent ontstaan toe dit 'n eilandkontinent was.

Die superorde bevat die volgende huidige soogdierordes:

  • Afrosoricida – gouemolle en tenreks
  • Macroscelidea – klaasneuse
  • Tubulidenta – die aardvark
  • Hyracoidea – dassies
  • Sirenia – doegongs
  • Proboscidea – slurpdiere

Hierdie takson is, saam met die ander drie hooftakke Xenarthra, Euarchontoglires en Laurasiatheria in 1998 op basis van filogenetiese navorsing op ekstante soogdiere se DNS voorgestel en die tradisionele paleontoloë wat hulle taksonomie baseer op die morfologie van fossiele het eers skepties gereageer. Daar is in 2016 steeds geleerdes wat nie saamstem nie,[1] hoewel dit 'n minderheidsposisie weergeef. In 'n onlangse groot kladistiese ontleding (Halliday)[2] -gebaseer op morfologie van fossiele- word nogtans die vierdeling duidelik teruggevind.

Kladogram

Daar is 'n party uitgestorwe groepe wat dalk in die Afrotheria behoort, maar hul posisie in hierdie kladogram is taamlik onduidelik.

Afrotheria

Ocepeia



Abdounodus





Paenungulata Hyracoidea

ProcaviidaeDendrohyraxEminiSmit white background.jpg


Tethytheria Proboscidea

ElephantidaeElephant white background.png


Sirenia

DugongidaeDugong dugon Hardwicke white background.jpg



TrichechidaeManatee white background.jpg



?

Desmostylia[3]



?

Embrithopoda[3]



Afroinsectiphilia ?

Ptolemaiida


Tubulidentata

OrycteropodidaeAardvark2 (PSF) colourised.png


Afroinsectivora Macroscelidea

MacroscelididaeRhynchocyon chrysopygus-J Smit white background.jpg


Afrosoricida

ChrysochloridaeThe animal kingdom, arranged according to its organization, serving as a foundation for the natural history of animals (Pl. 18) (Chrysochloris asiatica).jpg




TenrecidaeBrehms Thierleben - Allgemeine Kunde des Thierreichs (1876) (Tenrec ecaudatus).jpg



Bibymalagasia[4]









Verwysings

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Afrikaans )

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Die superorde Afrotheria (Stanhope et al. 1998) is een van die vier hoofgroepe van die plasentale kroon-Eutheria. Hierdie soogdiere het op die Afrika-kontinent ontstaan toe dit 'n eilandkontinent was.

Die superorde bevat die volgende huidige soogdierordes:

Afrosoricida – gouemolle en tenreks Macroscelidea – klaasneuse Tubulidenta – die aardvark Hyracoidea – dassies Sirenia – doegongs Proboscidea – slurpdiere

Hierdie takson is, saam met die ander drie hooftakke Xenarthra, Euarchontoglires en Laurasiatheria in 1998 op basis van filogenetiese navorsing op ekstante soogdiere se DNS voorgestel en die tradisionele paleontoloë wat hulle taksonomie baseer op die morfologie van fossiele het eers skepties gereageer. Daar is in 2016 steeds geleerdes wat nie saamstem nie, hoewel dit 'n minderheidsposisie weergeef. In 'n onlangse groot kladistiese ontleding (Halliday) -gebaseer op morfologie van fossiele- word nogtans die vierdeling duidelik teruggevind.

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Afrotheria ( Asturian )

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Asturian )

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Los afroterios (Afrotheria) son un superorde de mamíferos placentarios compuestu por trés claos: Afroinsectiphilia, Pseudungulata y Paenungulata.

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Afroterilər ( Azerbaijani )

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Afroterilər (lat. Afrotheria; hərfi mənada Afrika vəhşi heyvanları) - plasentalılar infrasinfinə aid heyvan dəstəüstü.

Əvvəllər afroterilərin dəstəustünə ayrılmasının bəzi zooloq və paleontoloqların tənqidinə məruz qalmasına baxmayaraq, 1999-cu ildə molekulyar bioloqlarının tədqiqatları nəticəsində onun dəstəüstünə ayrıldığı təsdiqlənib.

Təsnifatı

Eutheria

Afrotheria


Exafroplacentalia

Xenarthra


Boreoeutheria

Laurasiatheria


Euarchontoglires





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Afroterilər: Brief Summary ( Azerbaijani )

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Afroterilər (lat. Afrotheria; hərfi mənada Afrika vəhşi heyvanları) - plasentalılar infrasinfinə aid heyvan dəstəüstü.

Əvvəllər afroterilərin dəstəustünə ayrılmasının bəzi zooloq və paleontoloqların tənqidinə məruz qalmasına baxmayaraq, 1999-cu ildə molekulyar bioloqlarının tədqiqatları nəticəsində onun dəstəüstünə ayrıldığı təsdiqlənib.

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Afroteris ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Els afroteris (Afrotheria) són un superordre de mamífers erigit a partir de dades proporcionades per la genètica molecular. Inclouen animals de morfologia molt diversa, incloent-hi els talps daurats, musaranyes elefant, tenrecs, porcs formiguers, damans, elefants i manatís.

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Afroteris: Brief Summary ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Els afroteris (Afrotheria) són un superordre de mamífers erigit a partir de dades proporcionades per la genètica molecular. Inclouen animals de morfologia molt diversa, incloent-hi els talps daurats, musaranyes elefant, tenrecs, porcs formiguers, damans, elefants i manatís.

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Afrotheria ( Czech )

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Afrotheria je starobylá skupina placentálních savců, která zahrnuje chobotnatce, damany, sirény, hrabáče a dva řády drobných savců dříve řazených mezi hmyzožravcebércouny a afrosoricidy. Většina recentních afrotherií žije v Africe, rozšíření damanů však zasahuje až na Blízký východ a rozšíření chobotnatců až do jihovýchodní Asie (slon indický). Sirény žijí v teplých vodách Ameriky, Afriky i Asie. Vedle jihoamerické skupiny Xenarthra a dnes už po celém světě rozšířených boreoeutherií jsou Afrotheria třetí hlavní skupinou placentálů.



Afrotheria




Xenarthra




Laurasiatheria



Euarchontoglires





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Afrotheria ( German )

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Die Afrotheria sind eine molekulargenetisch festgelegte Überordnung innerhalb der Unterklasse der höheren Säugetiere. Sie umfassen 88 Arten. Der äußerlich recht inhomogen anmutenden Gruppe ist die stammesgeschichtliche Herkunft aus Afrika gemeinsam. Abgesehen vom Asiatischen Elefanten, einer Schliefer-Art und den Seekühen ist dieser Kontinent auch heute noch ihr Lebensraum.

In der späten Kreidezeit haben sich die Afrotheria in Afrika von ihrer Schwestergruppe getrennt, den Exafroplacentalia (Nebengelenktiere und Boreoeutheria).

Merkmale

Diese Säugetiergruppe ist sehr vielgestaltig und umfasst Wasserbewohner wie die Seekühe, Ameisenfresser wie das Erdferkel oder Riesen wie die Elefanten. Der Zwergkleintenrek (Microgale parvula) und der Gnomkleintenrek (Microgale pusilla) sind mit einem Gewicht von bis zu 4 Gramm die kleinsten Vertreter der Afrotheria; der Afrikanische Elefant (Loxodonta africana) ist dagegen mit seinem Gewicht von bis zu 5 Tonnen das größte Landsäugetier.

Von den genetischen Merkmalen, welche die Gruppe definieren, abgesehen, sind nur wenige skelettanatomische Merkmale bekannt, die die Gruppe vereinen. Alle Afrotherien besitzen gegenüber zahlreichen anderen, vor allem frühen Vertretern der Höheren Säugetiere und im Vergleich zu den Beuteltieren eine höhere Anzahl an Wirbeln in der Brust- und Lendenwirbelsäule (20 bis 31 gegenüber 19).[1] Eine weitere Synapomorphie (gemeinsames Merkmal) könnte in dem sehr späten Durchbruch des permanenten Gebisses erst im Erwachsenenstadium zu finden sein.[2]

Darüber hinaus zeichnet sich die Tiergruppe durch einige „primitive“ Merkmale aus, die sie mit urtümlichen Tiergruppen wie den Kloakentieren teilt. So liegen die Hoden der Männchen vieler Afrotherier in der Bauchhöhle und die Thermoregulation ist bei vielen Arten kaum entwickelt. Letzteres kann aber auch damit zusammenhängen, dass sie aus warmen Klimazonen stammen.

Stammesgeschichte

Mit dem Auseinanderbrechen des südlichen Großkontinents Gondwana in der Kreidezeit vor etwa 105 Millionen Jahren haben sich die Afrotheria vermutlich von allen anderen Gruppen der höheren Säugetiere getrennt entwickelt. Ihr gemeinsamer Vorfahr war vermutlich ein waldlebender Insekten- oder Pflanzenfresser.

Sehr frühe Nachweise der Afrotheria stammen aus Marokko und sind rund 60 Millionen Jahre alt, datieren somit in das ausgehende Paläozän. Dazu zählen etwa Ocepeia, ein sehr urtümlicher Vertreter, oder Eritherium, eines der ältesten bekannten Rüsseltiere.[3] Zu vielen Säugergruppen, die sich zur gleichen Zeit auf dem nördlichen Großkontinent Laurasia entwickelten, brachten die Afrotheria ökologische Gegenstücke hervor. So ähneln die Tenrekartigen den Insektenfressern (beispielsweise die Goldmulle den Maulwürfen), die Seekühe haben in ihrem Körperbau Parallelen zu Walen und Robben, die Schliefer ähneln Murmeltieren.

Als sich vor etwa 30 bis 40 Millionen Jahren durch die Annäherung Afrikas an Europa und Asien wieder die isolierte Lage Afrikas aufhob, wanderten zahlreiche Säugetiergruppen aus Eurasien nach Afrika ein; einige Afrotherier, wie die Elefanten und die Schliefer, besiedelten ihrerseits die nördlichen Kontinente.

Systematik

Die Vertreter der Afrotheria tragen in ihren Genomen spezifische Retroposons, sogenannte AfroSINEs, die die Zusammengehörigkeit belegen. Die Gruppe umfasst sechs ganz unterschiedlich aussehende rezente Ordnungen:

Auch die vor vielen Millionen Jahren erloschenen Linien der nashornähnlichen Embrithopoda und der amphibischen Desmostylia dürften zu den Afrotheria gehören. Schliefer, Seekühe und Elefanten werden manchmal aufgrund ihrer engen Verwandtschaft als Paenungulata zusammengefasst, die dann auch die Embrithopoda und die Desmostylia einschließen.

Eine Studie aus dem Jahr 2021 verweist zudem ein Taxon namens Sudamericungulata zu den Afrotherien, was aus rein anatomischen Erwägungen erfolgt. Die Sudamericungulata fassen die ausgestorbenen Litopterna und Didolodontidae zusammen, die in einer traditionellen Auffassung den sogenannten Südamerikanischen Huftieren (Meridiungulata) zugesprochen werden.[5]

Literatur

  • M. Nikaido, H. Nishihara, Y. Hukumoto, N. Okada: Ancient SINEs from African endemic mammals. In: Mol Biol Evol. 20, 2003, S. 522–527.
  • William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Mark S. Springer u. a.: Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics. In: Science. Vol 294, Issue 5550, 14. Dezember 2001, S. 2348–2351.
  • Jan Ole Kriegs, Gennady Churakov, Martin Kiefmann, Ursula Jordan, Juergen Brosius, Juergen Schmitz: Retroposed Elements as Archives for the Evolutionary History of Placental Mammals. In: PLoS Biol. 4(4), 2006, S. e91. (abstract)
  • David Macdonald: Die große Enzyklopädie der Säugetiere. Könemann in der Tandem Verlag, Königswinter 2004, ISBN 3-8331-1006-6.

Einzelnachweise

  1. Marcelo R. Sanchez-Villàgra, Yuichi Narita, Shigeru Kuratani: Thoracolumbar vertebral number: the first skeletal synapomorphy for afrotherian mammals. In: Systematics and Biodiversity. 5, 2007, S. 1–7.
  2. Robert J Asher, Thomas Lehmann: Dental eruption in afrotherian mammals. In: BMC Biology. 6, 2008, S. 14, doi:10.1186/1741-7007-6-14
  3. Emmanuel Gheerbrant, Mbarek Amaghzaz, Baadi Bouya, Florent Goussard, Charlène Letenneur: Ocepeia (Middle Paleocene of Morocco): The Oldest Skull of an Afrotherian Mammal. In: PLOSone. 9 (1), 2014, S. e89739 (plosone.org).
  4. Michael Buckley: A Molecular Phylogeny of Plesiorycteropus Reassigns the Extinct Mammalian Order ‘Bibymalagasia’. In: PlosOne. 8 (3), 2013, S. e59614, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059614
  5. Leonardo S. Avilla und Dimila Mothé: Out of Africa: A New Afrotheria Lineage Rises From Extinct South American Mammals. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 9, 2021, S. 654302, doi:10.3389/fevo.2021.654302
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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( German )

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Die Afrotheria sind eine molekulargenetisch festgelegte Überordnung innerhalb der Unterklasse der höheren Säugetiere. Sie umfassen 88 Arten. Der äußerlich recht inhomogen anmutenden Gruppe ist die stammesgeschichtliche Herkunft aus Afrika gemeinsam. Abgesehen vom Asiatischen Elefanten, einer Schliefer-Art und den Seekühen ist dieser Kontinent auch heute noch ihr Lebensraum.

In der späten Kreidezeit haben sich die Afrotheria in Afrika von ihrer Schwestergruppe getrennt, den Exafroplacentalia (Nebengelenktiere und Boreoeutheria).

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Afrotheria ( Maltese )

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Afrotheria huwa superordni ta' mammiferi plaċentati fil-klassi Mammalia, fis-sottoklassi Theria, fl-infraklassi Eutheria, b'sitt ordnijiet. Dan is-superordni flimkien ma' tliet superordnijiet oħra Euarchontoglires, Laurasiatheria, u Xenarthra, jiffurmaw l-infraklassi Eutheria.

Klassifikazzjoni

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Afrotheria ( Interlingua (International Auxiliary Language Association) )

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Afrotheria es un superordine de Placentalia.

Nota
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Afrotheria ( Tagalog )

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Ang Afrotheria ay isang klado ng mamalya, ang mga nabubuhay na miyembro na nabibilang sa mga grupo na kasalukuyang naninirahan sa Africa o ng Aprikang pinagmulan: golden moles, shrews ng elepante (kilala rin bilang sengis), tenrecs, aardvarks, hyraxes, elepante, mga bakang sa dagat, At ilang mga patay na klado. Nagbahagi ang mga ito ng ilang mga anatomical na tampok ngunit marami ang bahagyang o ganap na Aprikang sa kanilang pamamahagi. Ito ay malamang na sumasalamin sa katotohanan na ang Aprika ay isang kontinente ng isla sa pamamagitan ng maagang Cenozoic. Dahil ang kontinente ay nakahiwalay sa pamamagitan ng tubig, ang mga grupo ng Laurasian tulad ng insectivores, kunehong, carnivorans at ungulates ay hindi maitatag. Sa halip, ang mga niches na inookupahan ng mga grupong iyon ay napunan ng mga tenrecs, hyraxes at elepante na lumaki mula sa ancestral afrothere. Maaaring naganap ang adaptive radiation na ito bilang tugon sa pagpatay ng Cretaceous-Paleogene mass.


Mamalya Ang lathalaing ito na tungkol sa Mamalya ay isang usbong. Makatutulong ka sa Wikipedia sa nito.

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Afrotheria ( Limburgan; Limburger; Limburgish )

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 src=
Afrotheria: 1. aerdverke; 2. doejóng; 3. elefantssjaermoes; 4. zieëkoe; 5. góldmol; 6. klipdas; 7. elefant; 8. tenrek.

De Afrotheria vörmen 'n klaad van zougdere; de laevendje leje behuuere toet gruup die of noe in Afrika veurkómme, of 'nen oearsproónk in Afrika höbbe: góldmöl, elefantssjaermuus, tenreks, aerdverkes, klipdasse, elefante, zieëkuuj en versjillige oetgestórve klade. Ze deile weinig anatomische kènmirke, meh väöl daovan kómme veurnamelik of oetsloetendj veur in Afrika. Dit kump wersjienlik oet 't feit det Afrika 'n eilandjkóntinent waas gedoerendje 't vreug Cenozoïcum. Ómdet 't kóntinent aafgelaenge waas door 't water kóste Lauraziatische gruup wie insektenaeters, knienechtige, roufderen en hoofdere zich neet dao vestige. Dao-inplaats woorte de niches veur die gruup opgevöldj door tenreks, klipdasse en elefante die zich óntwikkeldje oet 'ne gemeinsjappelik veureljer. Dees snel verangeringe kan e gevolg zeen gewaes vanne massa-oetstèrving oppe Kriet-Paleogeengrens.

De gemeinsjappelike oearsprónk van dees bieëster woort neet erkèndj toet inne late jaore 1990. Recènt wirk mit DNA enne morfologie vanne bieëster haet de verwantjsjap aevel redelik betroewbaar vasgestèldj. Vreuger woorte de saorten ingedeildj bieje insektenaeters, de hoofderen enne tandjerme.

Taxonomie

De nag-laevendje Afrotheria waeren es volg wiejer óngerverdeildj:

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Afrotheria ( Scots )

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Afrotheria is a clade o mammals, the livin members o which alang tae groups that are either currently livin in Africae or o African origin: gowden moles, elephant shrews (an aa kent as sengis), tenrecs, aardvarks, hyraxes, elephants, sea cows, an several extinct clades.

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Afrotheria ( North Frisian )

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Amrum.pngTekst üüb Öömrang

Afrotheria san en skööl faan sääks kategoriin faan huuger tetjdiarten (Eutheria) mä amanbi 80 slacher. Jo haa jo faan Afrikoo ütj auer a welt ferdiald.

Kategoriin

  • (Bibymalagasia) (†)
  • (Afrosoricida)
  • (Hyracoidea)
  • (Macroscelidea)
  • (Tubulidentata)
Tethytheria:

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Maltese )

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Afrotheria huwa superordni ta' mammiferi plaċentati fil-klassi Mammalia, fis-sottoklassi Theria, fl-infraklassi Eutheria, b'sitt ordnijiet. Dan is-superordni flimkien ma' tliet superordnijiet oħra Euarchontoglires, Laurasiatheria, u Xenarthra, jiffurmaw l-infraklassi Eutheria.

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Limburgan; Limburger; Limburgish )

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 src= Afrotheria: 1. aerdverke; 2. doejóng; 3. elefantssjaermoes; 4. zieëkoe; 5. góldmol; 6. klipdas; 7. elefant; 8. tenrek.

De Afrotheria vörmen 'n klaad van zougdere; de laevendje leje behuuere toet gruup die of noe in Afrika veurkómme, of 'nen oearsproónk in Afrika höbbe: góldmöl, elefantssjaermuus, tenreks, aerdverkes, klipdasse, elefante, zieëkuuj en versjillige oetgestórve klade. Ze deile weinig anatomische kènmirke, meh väöl daovan kómme veurnamelik of oetsloetendj veur in Afrika. Dit kump wersjienlik oet 't feit det Afrika 'n eilandjkóntinent waas gedoerendje 't vreug Cenozoïcum. Ómdet 't kóntinent aafgelaenge waas door 't water kóste Lauraziatische gruup wie insektenaeters, knienechtige, roufderen en hoofdere zich neet dao vestige. Dao-inplaats woorte de niches veur die gruup opgevöldj door tenreks, klipdasse en elefante die zich óntwikkeldje oet 'ne gemeinsjappelik veureljer. Dees snel verangeringe kan e gevolg zeen gewaes vanne massa-oetstèrving oppe Kriet-Paleogeengrens.

De gemeinsjappelike oearsprónk van dees bieëster woort neet erkèndj toet inne late jaore 1990. Recènt wirk mit DNA enne morfologie vanne bieëster haet de verwantjsjap aevel redelik betroewbaar vasgestèldj. Vreuger woorte de saorten ingedeildj bieje insektenaeters, de hoofderen enne tandjerme.

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( North Frisian )

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Afrotheria san en skööl faan sääks kategoriin faan huuger tetjdiarten (Eutheria) mä amanbi 80 slacher. Jo haa jo faan Afrikoo ütj auer a welt ferdiald.

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Афротерии ( Macedonian )

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Афротериите (односно Afrotheria − "африкански ѕверови") се клад (или надред) на вистински цицачи каде припаѓаат златните кртови, слоновските земјоријачки, тенреките, капскиот цевкозаб, пештерниците, слоновите и моржовите.

По сè изгледа дека многу афротерии се на работ од исчезнување, така што доколку оваа група се смета за природна, ова би довело до драматичен губиток на генетски и еволуциски диверзитет.

Еволутивни врски

Оваа група е предложена само врз основа на молекуларните и ДНК анализи. Од 1990-тите, генетските анализи ја признаваат групата на афротериите како една од четирите главни групи во рамките на Eutheria (која ги содржи плаценталните цицачи). Точната поврзаност меѓу четирите еутериски кладови − афротерии, чуднозглобни (Xenarthra), лауразиотерии (Laurasiatheria) и еуархонтоглирите (Euarchontoglira) − останува недоволно објаснета. Една хипотеза предлага дека најстарото разделување меѓу афротериите и останатите три групи (Exafroplacentalia) се случило пред околу 105 милиони години, кога Африка била веќе одделена од другите поголеми копнени маси. Генетските анализи и фосилните податоци укажуваат на тоа дека групата Xenarthra се развила во Јужна Америка и дивергирала од останатите две нешто подоцна (Бореоеутерии). Лауразиотериите и еуархонтоглирите се поблиски во однос на другите два клада, и можат да се групираат заедно во таксонот Boreoeutheria.

Некои истражувачи сметаат дека овие молекуларни класификации на еутериите се прелиминарни или контроверзни, бидејќи ги растураат некои претходни групирања на цицачите кои се основаат на морфолошки одлики. На пример, редот Insectivora се состоел од многу родови и видови на мали, инсектојадни цицачи, од кои некои според новата систематика излегува дека се подалечни сродници; тие споделуваат слична анатомија и однесување само како резултат на конвергентна еволуција.[1] Како друг пример може да послужат различните морфолошки одлики на групата Xenarthra (каде припаѓаат мравојадите, мрзливците и армадилата), кои ги воделе таксономите да ги групираат сите други еутериски цицачи во таксонот Epitheria, при што Xenarthra се појавувала како најдалечна група. Друга реконструкција ја сместува Xenarthra заедно со Аfrotheria во кладот Atlantogenata, како сестрински клад на Boreoeutheria.

Систематика

За афротерии се сметаат неколку рецентни редови на цицачи:

Наводи

  1. Видете го документот на the Kriegs et al. (2001), каде се зборува за можните реконструкции на кладовите врз основа на различните форми на генетски и морфолошки докази. Тие веруваат дека отсуството/присуството на ретротранспозони дава помалку грешки отколку другите постоечки модели на таксономска реконструкција.
  2. Seiffert (2007) дава преглед на можните решенија на политомијата на Afrosoricida, Macroscelidea, Tubulidentata и Paenungulata. Денес не постои широко прифатен консензус за овој аспект на афротериската филогенија.
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Афротерии: Brief Summary ( Macedonian )

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Афротериите (односно Afrotheria − "африкански ѕверови") се клад (или надред) на вистински цицачи каде припаѓаат златните кртови, слоновските земјоријачки, тенреките, капскиот цевкозаб, пештерниците, слоновите и моржовите.

По сè изгледа дека многу афротерии се на работ од исчезнување, така што доколку оваа група се смета за природна, ова би довело до драматичен губиток на генетски и еволуциски диверзитет.

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Afrotheria

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Afrotheria (/æfrˈθɪəriə/ from Latin Afro- "of Africa" + theria "wild beast") is a clade of mammals, the living members of which belong to groups that are either currently living in Africa or of African origin: golden moles, elephant shrews (also known as sengis), tenrecs, aardvarks, hyraxes, elephants, sea cows, and several extinct clades. Most groups of afrotheres share little or no superficial resemblance, and their similarities have only become known in recent times because of genetics and molecular studies. Many afrothere groups are found mostly or exclusively in Africa, reflecting the fact that Africa was an island continent from the Cretaceous until the early Miocene around 20 million years ago, when Afro-Arabia collided with Eurasia.

Because Africa was isolated by water, Laurasian groups of mammals such as insectivores, rodents, lagomorphs, carnivorans and ungulates could not reach Africa for much of the early to mid-Cenozoic. Instead, the niches occupied by those groups on the northern continents were filled by various groups of afrotheres via the process of convergent evolution. The small insectivorous afrotheres such as elephant shrews, golden moles, and tenrecs filled the niches of insectivores, the hyraxes filled the roles of rodents and lagomorphs, the aardvarks filled the roles of various medium size ant-eating mammals (anteaters, armadillos, pangolins, echidnas, numbats, etc.) found on other continents throughout the Cenozoic, and proboscideans (elephants and their relatives) filled the roles of large herbivores such as hippos, camels, rhinos, and tapirs. The sirenians developed aquatic body plans and started spreading to other parts of the world by water (evolving convergently with the other groups of marine mammals such as cetaceans and pinnipeds). In addition to their similarity with Laurasian mammals in North America, Europe, and Asia, many afrotheres also exhibit convergent evolution with groups of mammals that evolved and lived exclusively in South America, which was also an island continent for much of the Cenozoic.

The common ancestry of these animals was not recognized until the late 1990s.[1] Historically, the Paenungulata had been linked to the true ungulates (particularly the Perissodactyls); the golden mole, tenrecs, and elephant shrews with the traditional (and polyphyletic/incorrect) taxon Insectivora; and the aardvarks with the pangolins and the xenarthrans within the invalid taxon Edentata. Continuing work on the molecular[2][3][4] and morphological[5][6][7][8] diversity of afrotherian mammals has provided ever increasing support for their common ancestry.

Evolutionary relationships

The afrotherian clade was originally proposed in 1998[1] based on analyses of DNA sequence data. However, previous studies had hinted at the close interrelationships among subsets of endemic African mammals; some of these studies date to the 1920s[9] and there were sporadic papers in the 1980s[10] and 1990s.[11][12][13] The core of the Afrotheria consists of the Paenungulata, i.e., elephants, sea cows, and hyraxes, a group with a long history among comparative anatomists.[14][15] Hence, while DNA sequence data have proven essential to infer the existence of the Afrotheria as a whole, and while the Afroinsectiphilia (insectivoran-grade afrotheres including tenrecs, golden moles, sengis, and aardvarks) were not recognized as part of Afrotheria without DNA data, some precedent is found in the comparative anatomical literature for the idea that at least part of this group forms a clade. The Paleocene genus Ocepeia, which is the most completely-known Paleocene African mammal and the oldest afrotherian known from a complete skull, shares similarities with both Paenungulata and Afroinsectiphilia, and may help to characterize the ancestral body type of afrotherians.[16]

Since the 1990s, increasing molecular and anatomical data have been applied to the classification of animals. Both types of data support the idea that afrotherian mammals are descended from a single common ancestor to the exclusion of other mammals. On the anatomical side, features shared by most, if not all, afrotheres include high vertebral counts,[8] aspects of placental membrane formation,[17] the shape of the ankle bones,[6][7] and the relatively late eruption of the permanent dentition.[18] The snout is unusually long and mobile in several Afrotherian species, and this was pointed out as a possible shared-derived character.[19] Studies of genomic data, including millions of aligned nucleotides sampled for a growing number of placental mammals, also support Afrotheria as a clade.[20][21] Additionally, there might be some dental synapomorphies uniting afroinsectiphilians, if not afrotheres as a whole: p4 talonid and trigonid of similar breadth, a prominent p4 hypoconid, presence of a P4 metacone and absence of parastyles on M1–2.[7][22]

Afrotheria is now recognized as one of the three major groups within the Eutheria (containing placental mammals).[23] Relations within the three cohorts, Afrotheria, Xenarthra, Boreoeutheria, and the identity of the placental root, remain somewhat controversial.[5]

Afrotheria as a clade has usually been discussed without a Linnaean rank, but has been assigned the rank of cohort, magnorder, and superorder. One reconstruction, which applies the molecular clock, proposes that the oldest split occurred between Afrotheria and the other two some 105 million years ago in the mid-Cretaceous, when the African continent was separated from other major land masses.[24] This idea is consistent with the fossil record of Xenarthra, which is restricted to South America (following recent consensus that Eurotamandua is not a xenarthran[25]).

However, Afrotheria itself does not have a fossil record restricted to Africa,[26] and appears in fact to have evolved in the continent's isolation.[27] More recent, genomic-scale phylogenies favor the hypothesis that Afrotheria and Xenarthra comprise sister taxa at the base of the placental mammal radiation, suggesting an ancient Gondwanan clade of placental mammals.[28] A 2021 morphological study also proposed to render Meridiungulata polyphyletic and recognise most of its clades as part of a group called Sudamericungulata, closely related to hyraxes, while Litopterna remains a sister taxon to Perissodactyla.[29]

Relations between the various afrotherian orders are still being studied. On the basis of molecular studies, elephants and manatees appear to be related, and likewise elephant shrews and aardvarks.[30] These findings are compatible with the work of earlier anatomists.[14][15]

Phylogeny

Phylogenetic position of afrotherians (in red) among placentals in a genus-level molecular phylogeny of 116 extant mammals inferred from the gene tree information of 14,509 coding DNA sequences.[31] The other major clades are colored: marsupials (magenta), xenarthrans (orange), laurasiatherians (green), and euarchontoglires (blue).
Afrotheria Afroinsectiphilia Tubulidentata

OrycteropodidaeAardvark2 (PSF) colourised.png

Afroinsectivora Macroscelidea

MacroscelididaeRhynchocyon chrysopygus-J Smit white background.jpg

Afrosoricida

ChrysochloridaeThe animal kingdom, arranged according to its organization, serving as a foundation for the natural history of animals (Pl. 18) (Chrysochloris asiatica).jpg

Tenrecomorpha

PotamogalidaePotamogale velox illustration.jpg

TenrecidaeBrehms Thierleben - Allgemeine Kunde des Thierreichs (1876) (Tenrec ecaudatus).jpg

Paenungulata Hyracoidea

ProcaviidaeDendrohyraxEminiSmit white background.jpg

Tethytheria Proboscidea

ElephantidaeElephas africanus - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - (white background).jpg

Sirenia

DugongidaeDugong dugon Hardwicke white background.jpg

TrichechidaeManatee white background.jpg

A cladogram of Afrotheria based on molecular evidence[15]

Current status and distribution

Many extant members of Afrotheria appear to have a high risk of extinction (perhaps related to the large size of many). Species loss within this already small group would comprise a particularly great loss of genetic and evolutionary diversity. The IUCN Afrotheria Specialist Group notes that Afrotheria, as currently reconstructed, includes nearly a third of all mammalian orders currently found in Africa and Madagascar, but only 75 of more than 1,200 mammalian species in those areas.[32]

While most extant species assigned to Afrotheria live in Africa, some (such as the Indian elephant and three of the four sirenian species) occur elsewhere; many of these are also endangered. Prior to the Quaternary extinction event, proboscideans were present on every continent of the world except Australia and Antarctica. Hyraxes lived in much of Eurasia as recently as the end of the Pliocene. The extinct afrotherian orders of embrithopods and desmostylians were also once widely distributed. However, the desmostylians have recently been viewed as possible perissodactyls, rather than afrotheres,[33] although this is still controversial;[27] the taxonomic placement of embrithopods is also not clear.[34]

Classification

Afrotheria is a clade of placental mammals, the stem designation for which is Eutheria. Based on precedent, some clades are junior synonyms and arguably should be replaced.[35][36]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Stanhope, M. J.; Waddell, V. G.; Madsen, O.; de Jong, W.; Hedges, S. B.; Cleven, G. C.; Kao, D.; Springer, M. S. (1998). "Molecular evidence for multiple origins of Insectivora and for a new order of endemic African insectivore mammals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (17): 9967–9972. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.9967S. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.17.9967. PMC 21445. PMID 9707584.
  2. ^ Springer, Mark S.; Michael J. Stanhope; Ole Madsen; Wilfried W. de Jong (2004). "Molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree" (PDF). Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 19 (8): 430–438. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004.05.006. PMID 16701301.
  3. ^ Robinson, T. J.; Fu, B.; Ferguson-Smith, M. A.; Yang, F. (2004). "Cross-species chromosome painting in the golden mole and elephant-shrew: support for the mammalian clades Afrotheria and Afroinsectiphillia but not Afroinsectivora". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 271 (1547): 1477–1484. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2754. PMC 1691750. PMID 15306319.
  4. ^ Nishihara, H.; Satta, Y.; Nikaido, M.; Thewissen, J.G.M.; Stanhope, M.J.; Okada, N. (2005). "A retroposon analysis of Afrotherian phylogeny". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 22 (9): 1823–1833. doi:10.1093/molbev/msi179. PMID 15930154.
  5. ^ a b Asher RJ, Bennett N, Lehmann T (2009). "The new framework for understanding placental mammal evolution". BioEssays. 31 (8): 853–864. doi:10.1002/bies.200900053. PMID 19582725.
  6. ^ a b c Tabuce, R.; Marivaux, L.; Adaci, M.; Bensalah, M.; Hartenberger, J.-L.; Mahboubi, M.; Mebrouk, F.; Tafforeau, P.; Jaeger, J.-J. (2007). "Early Tertiary mammals from North Africa reinforce the molecular Afrotheria clade". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 274 (1614): 1159–1166. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.0229. PMC 2189562. PMID 17329227.
  7. ^ a b c d Seiffert, Erik R (2007). "A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morphological, and fossil evidence". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 7 (1): 224. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-224. PMC 2248600. PMID 17999766.
  8. ^ a b Sánchez‐Villagra, Marcelo R.; Narita, Yuichi; Kuratani, Shigeru (2007). "Thoracolumbar vertebral number: The first skeletal synapomorphy for afrotherian mammals". Systematics and Biodiversity. 5 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1017/S1477200006002258. S2CID 85675984.
  9. ^ Le Gros Clark, W.E. & C.F. Sonntag (1926). "A monograph of Orycteropus afer III, the skull, the skeleton of the trunk, and limbs". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 30: 445–485.
  10. ^ DeJong W.W.; Zweers A.; Goodman M. (1981). "Relationship of aardvark to elephants, hyraxes and sea cows from alpha-crystallin sequences". Nature. 292 (5823): 538–540. Bibcode:1981Natur.292..538D. doi:10.1038/292538a0. PMID 7254349. S2CID 4256271.
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  12. ^ Porter, Calvin A.; Goodman, Morris; Stanhope, Michael J. (1996). "Evidence on mammalian phylogeny from sequences of Exon 28 of the von Willebrand Factor gene". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 5 (1): 89–101. doi:10.1006/mpev.1996.0008. PMID 8673300.
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  14. ^ a b Simpson, G. G. (1945). "The principles of classification and a classification of mammals". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 85: 1–350.
  15. ^ a b c Tabuce, Rodolphe; Asher, Robert J.; Lehmann, Thomas (2008). "Afrotherian mammals: a review of current data" (PDF). Mammalia. 72 (1): 2–14. doi:10.1515/MAMM.2008.004. S2CID 46133294. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-08-01. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
  16. ^ a b Gheerbrant, Emmanuel; Amaghzaz, Mbarek; Bouya, Baadi; Goussard, Florent; Letenneur, Charlène (2014). "Ocepeia (Middle Paleocene of Morocco): The Oldest Skull of an Afrotherian Mammal". PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e89739. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...989739G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089739. PMC 3935939. PMID 24587000.
  17. ^ Mess, Andrea; Carter, Anthony M. (2006). "Evolutionary transformations of fetal membrane characters in Eutheria with special reference to Afrotheria". Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution. 306B (2): 140–163. doi:10.1002/jez.b.21079. PMID 16254985.
  18. ^ Asher, Robert J; Lehmann, Thomas (2008). "Dental eruption in afrotherian mammals". BMC Biology. 6 (1): 14. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-6-14. PMC 2292681. PMID 18366669.
  19. ^ Hedges, SB (2001). "Afrotheria: Plate tectonics meets genomics". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 98 (1): 1–2. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.1.1.
  20. ^ Murphy, W. J.; Pringle, T. H.; Crider, T. A.; Springer, M. S.; Miller, W. (2007). "Using genomic data to unravel the root of the placental mammal phylogeny". Genome Research. 17 (4): 413–421. doi:10.1101/gr.5918807. PMC 1832088. PMID 17322288.
  21. ^ Nikolaev, Sergey; Montoya-Burgos, Juan I.; Margulies, Elliott H.; NISC Comparative Sequencing Program; Rougemont, Jacques; Nyffeler, Bruno; Antonarakis, Stylianos E. (2007). "Early History of Mammals Is Elucidated with the ENCODE Multiple Species Sequencing Data". PLOS Genetics. 3 (1): e2. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0030002. PMC 1761045. PMID 17206863.
  22. ^ Cote S, Werdelin L, Seiffert ER, Barry JC (March 2007). "Additional material of the enigmatic Early Miocene mammal Kelba and its relationship to the order Ptolemaiida". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 104 (13): 5510–5. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.5510C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0700441104. PMC 1838468. PMID 17372202.
  23. ^ William J. Murphy; Eduardo Eizirik; Mark S. Springer; et al. (14 December 2001). "Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics" (PDF). Science. 294 (5550): 2348–2351. Bibcode:2001Sci...294.2348M. doi:10.1126/science.1067179. PMID 11743200. S2CID 34367609.
  24. ^ Springer, M. S.; Murphy, W. J.; Eizirik, E.; O'Brien, S. J. (2003). "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (3): 1056–1061. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.1056S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0334222100. PMC 298725. PMID 12552136.
  25. ^ Rose KD, Emry RJ, Gaudin TJ, Storch G (2005). "Xenarthra and Pholidota.". In Rose KD, Archibald JD (eds.). The Rise of Placental Mammals: Origins and Relationships of the Major Extant Clades. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  26. ^ Zack S.P.; Penkrot T.A.; Bloch J.I.; Rose K.D. (2005). "Affinities of 'hyopsodontids' to elephant shrews and a Holarctic origin of Afrotheria" (PDF). Nature. 434 (7032): 497–501. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..497Z. doi:10.1038/nature03351. PMID 15791254. S2CID 4428738.
  27. ^ a b Gheerbrant, Emmanuel; Filippo, Andrea; Schmitt, Arnaud (2016). "Convergence of Afrotherian and Laurasiatherian Ungulate-Like Mammals: First Morphological Evidence from the Paleocene of Morocco". PLOS ONE. 11 (7): e0157556. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1157556G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157556. PMC 4934866. PMID 27384169.
  28. ^ Prasad, A. B.; Allard, M. W.; Green, E. D. (2008). "Confirming the Phylogeny of Mammals by Use of Large Comparative Sequence Data Sets". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 25 (9): 1795–1808. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn104. PMC 2515873. PMID 18453548.
  29. ^ Avilla, Leonardo S.; Mothé, Dimila (2021). "Out of Africa: A New Afrotheria Lineage Rises From Extinct South American Mammals". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 9. doi:10.3389/fevo.2021.654302. ISSN 2296-701X.
  30. ^ Svartman, M.; Stanyon, R. (2012). "The Chromosomes of Afrotheria and Their Bearing on Mammalian Genome Evolution". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 137 (2–4): 144–153. doi:10.1159/000341387. PMID 22868637. S2CID 24353318.
  31. ^ Scornavacca C, Belkhir K, Lopez J, Dernat R, Delsuc F, Douzery EJ, Ranwez V (April 2019). "OrthoMaM v10: Scaling-up orthologous coding sequence and exon alignments with more than one hundred mammalian genomes". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 36 (4): 861–862. doi:10.1093/molbev/msz015. PMC 6445298. PMID 30698751.
  32. ^ "What is Afrotheria?". IUCN Afrotheria Specialist Group. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
  33. ^ a b Cooper, L. N.; Seiffert, E. R.; Clementz, M.; Madar, S. I.; Bajpai, S.; Hussain, S. T.; Thewissen, J. G. M. (2014-10-08). "Anthracobunids from the Middle Eocene of India and Pakistan Are Stem Perissodactyls". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e109232. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j9232C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109232. PMC 4189980. PMID 25295875.
  34. ^ Erdal, O.; Antoine, P.-O.; Sen, S.; Smith, A. (2016). "New material of Palaeoamasia kansui (Embrithopoda, Mammalia) from the Eocene of Turkey and a phylogenetic analysis of Embrithopoda at the species level". Palaeontology. 59 (5): 631–655. doi:10.1111/pala.12247. S2CID 89418652.
  35. ^ "Afrosoricida". Mammal Species of the World, 3rd edition. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
  36. ^ McDowell, S. B. (1958). "The Greater Antillean insectivores". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 115: 115–213.
  37. ^ A Anthony Ravel; Maeva Orliac (2014). "The inner ear morphology of the 'condylarthran' Hyopsodus lepidus". Historical Biology. 27 (8): 957–969. doi:10.1080/08912963.2014.915823. S2CID 84391276.
  38. ^ a b Avilla, Leonardo S.; Mothé, Dimila (2021). "Out of Africa: A New Afrotheria Lineage Rises from Extinct South American Mammals". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 9. doi:10.3389/fevo.2021.654302.

References

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary

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Afrotheria (/æfroʊˈθɪəriə/ from Latin Afro- "of Africa" + theria "wild beast") is a clade of mammals, the living members of which belong to groups that are either currently living in Africa or of African origin: golden moles, elephant shrews (also known as sengis), tenrecs, aardvarks, hyraxes, elephants, sea cows, and several extinct clades. Most groups of afrotheres share little or no superficial resemblance, and their similarities have only become known in recent times because of genetics and molecular studies. Many afrothere groups are found mostly or exclusively in Africa, reflecting the fact that Africa was an island continent from the Cretaceous until the early Miocene around 20 million years ago, when Afro-Arabia collided with Eurasia.

Because Africa was isolated by water, Laurasian groups of mammals such as insectivores, rodents, lagomorphs, carnivorans and ungulates could not reach Africa for much of the early to mid-Cenozoic. Instead, the niches occupied by those groups on the northern continents were filled by various groups of afrotheres via the process of convergent evolution. The small insectivorous afrotheres such as elephant shrews, golden moles, and tenrecs filled the niches of insectivores, the hyraxes filled the roles of rodents and lagomorphs, the aardvarks filled the roles of various medium size ant-eating mammals (anteaters, armadillos, pangolins, echidnas, numbats, etc.) found on other continents throughout the Cenozoic, and proboscideans (elephants and their relatives) filled the roles of large herbivores such as hippos, camels, rhinos, and tapirs. The sirenians developed aquatic body plans and started spreading to other parts of the world by water (evolving convergently with the other groups of marine mammals such as cetaceans and pinnipeds). In addition to their similarity with Laurasian mammals in North America, Europe, and Asia, many afrotheres also exhibit convergent evolution with groups of mammals that evolved and lived exclusively in South America, which was also an island continent for much of the Cenozoic.

The common ancestry of these animals was not recognized until the late 1990s. Historically, the Paenungulata had been linked to the true ungulates (particularly the Perissodactyls); the golden mole, tenrecs, and elephant shrews with the traditional (and polyphyletic/incorrect) taxon Insectivora; and the aardvarks with the pangolins and the xenarthrans within the invalid taxon Edentata. Continuing work on the molecular and morphological diversity of afrotherian mammals has provided ever increasing support for their common ancestry.

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Afrotheria ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Los afroterios (Afrotheria) son un superorden de mamíferos placentarios compuesto por los actuales órdenes Afrosoricida, Macroscelidea, Tubulidentata, Hyracoidea, Proboscidea y Sirenia. Son animales propios de África, Eurasia y Norteamérica, aunque los sirenios se han expandido por gran parte del planeta.

Relaciones evolutivas

El clado Afrotheria se propuso en 1998 basándose en la secuencia de ADN y elementos genéticos que une a los órdenes Afrosoricida, Macroscelidea, Tubulidentata, Hyracoidea, Proboscidea y Sirenia.[1][2]​ La mayoría de los grupos de afroterios comparten poca o ninguna semejanza superficial y sus similitudes solo se han conocido en los últimos tiempos debido a los estudios moleculares.[3]​ Muchos grupos de afroterios se encuentran mayor o exclusivamente en África, lo que refleja el hecho de que África era un continente insular desde principios del Cenozoico. Los afroterios tuvieron su lugar de origen en África y posteriormente han logrado expandirse a otros continentes.

Afrotheria se reconoce como uno de los cuatro clados dentro de Placentalia, los cuales generalmente no tienen categoría taxonómica pero a veces se le dan las categorías de magnorden o superorden. Las relaciones entre los cuatro cohortes (Afrotheria, Xenarthra, Laurasiatheria y Euarchontoglires) y la identidad de la raíz placental todavía son algo controvertidas.

La propia Afrotheria no tiene un registro fósil antiguo limitado a África y de hecho parece haber evolucionado en el aislamiento del continente.[4]​ Los estudios moleculares favorecen la hipótesis de que Afrotheria y Xenarthra comprenden taxones hermanos en la base de la radiación placentaria de mamíferos, lo que sugiere un antiguo clado gonduano de mamíferos placentarios llamado Atlantogenata.[5]​ Esta idea es coherente con el registro fósil de Xenarthra que también se limita a Sudamérica.[6][7]

Una filogenia calibrada reciente propone que Afrotheria divergió del grupo hermano Xenarthra a mediados del Cretácico hace 105-120 millones de años cuando África y Sudamérica se separaron en grandes masas.[8]

Los afroterios penungulados han desarrollado pezuñas al igual que los perisodáctilos y artiodáctilos pertenecientes a Laurasiatheria lo cual ha llevado a que se los clasifiqué en el antiguo clado Ungulata, pero fue resultado de la evolución convergente.[9]

En cuanto a filogenia Afrotheria se divide en dos clados: Afroinsectiphilia que incluye el orden Tubulidentata y Afroinsectivora (clado que une a los órdenes de insectívoros Macroscelidea y Afrosoricida). Y Paenungulata el cual se clasifica a los hiracoideos y el clado Tethytheria que incluye a los proboscideos y sirenios.

A pesar de ello algunos análisis genéticos han dado resultados diversos y contradictorios.[10][11][12][13][14]​ Sin embargo los análisis genéticos recientes y más exhaustivos respaldan la monofilia de esta clasificación.[15][16][17][18][19][20]

Clasificación

Un esquema con todos los animales actuales y extintos:

Filogenia

Un estudio genético reciente utilizando una gran cantidad de elementos ultraconservados[15]​ y otros de todo el genoma han apoyado la siguiente filogenia:[16][17][18]

Afrotheria Afroinsectiphilia

Tubulidentata Aardvark2 (PSF) colourised.png

Afroinsectivora

Macroscelidea Rhynchocyon chrysopygus-J Smit white background.jpg

   

Afrosoricida Brehms Thierleben - Allgemeine Kunde des Thierreichs (1876) (Tenrec ecaudatus).jpg

      Paenungulata

Hyracoidea DendrohyraxEminiSmit white background.jpg

Tethytheria

Proboscidea Elephant white background.png

   

Sirenia Manatee white background.jpg

       

Referencias

  1. Stanhope, M. J.; Waddell, V. G.; Madsen, O.; de Jong, W.; Hedges, S. B.; Cleven, G. C.; Kao, D.; Springer, M. S. (1998). «Molecular evidence for multiple origins of Insectivora and for a new order of endemic African insectivore mammals». Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95 (17): 9967-9972. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.9967S. PMC 21445. PMID 9707584. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.17.9967.
  2. Springer, M. S.; Cleven, Gregory C.; Madsen, Ole; De Jong, Wilfried W.; Waddell, Victor G.; Amrine, Heather M.; Stanhope, Michael J. (1997). «Endemic African mammals shake the phylogenetic tree». Nature 388 (6637): 61-64. PMID 9214502. doi:10.1038/40386.
  3. Sánchez‐Villagra, Marcelo R.; Narita, Yuichi; Kuratani, Shigeru (2007). «Thoracolumbar vertebral number: The first skeletal synapomorphy for afrotherian mammals». Systematics and Biodiversity 5 (1): 1-7. doi:10.1017/S1477200006002258.
  4. Zack S.P.; Penkrot T.A.; Bloch J.I.; Rose K.D. (2005). «Affinities of 'hyopsodontids' to elephant shrews and a Holarctic origin of Afrotheria». Nature 434 (7032): 497-501. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..497Z. PMID 15791254. doi:10.1038/nature03351.
  5. Morgan, CC; Foster, PG; Webb, AE; Pisani, D; McInerney, JO; O'Connell, MJ (2013). «Heterogeneous models place the root of the placental mammal phylogeny». Mol Biol Evol 30 (9): 2145-256. PMC 3748356. PMID 23813979. doi:10.1093/molbev/mst117.
  6. Murphy, W. J.; Pringle, T. H.; Crider, T. A.; Springer, M. S.; Miller, W. (2007). «Using genomic data to unravel the root of the placental mammal phylogeny». Genome Research 17 (4): 413-21. PMC 1832088. PMID 17322288. doi:10.1101/gr.5918807.
  7. Svartman, M.; Stanyon, R. (2012). «The Chromosomes of Afrotheria and Their Bearing on Mammalian Genome Evolution». Cytogenetic and Genome Research 137 (2–4): 144-153. PMID 22868637. doi:10.1159/000341387.
  8. Springer, M. S.; Murphy, W. J.; Eizirik, E.; O'Brien, S. J. (2016). «Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary». Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (3): 1056-1061. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.1056S. PMC 298725. PMID 12552136. doi:10.1073/pnas.0334222100.
  9. Gheerbrant, Emmanuel; Filippo, Andrea; Schmitt, Arnaud (2016). «Convergence of Afrotherian and Laurasiatherian Ungulate-Like Mammals: First Morphological Evidence from the Paleocene of Morocco». PLOS ONE 11 (7): e0157556. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1157556G. PMC 4934866. PMID 27384169. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157556.
  10. Cooper, L. N.; Seiffert, E. R.; Clementz, M.; Madar, S. I.; Bajpai, S.; Hussain, S. T.; Thewissen, J. G. M. (8 de octubre de 2014). «Anthracobunids from the Middle Eocene of India and Pakistan Are Stem Perissodactyls». PLoS ONE 9 (10): e109232. PMC 4189980. PMID 25295875. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109232.
  11. Hidenori Nishihara, Yoko Satta, Masato Nikaido, J. G. M. Thewissen, Michael J. Stanhope & Norihiro Okada: A Retroposon Analysis of Afrotherian Phylogeny. Molecular Biolog and Evolution 22 (9), 2005, S. 1823–1833.
  12. Seiffert, Erik (2007). «A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morphological, and fossil evidence». BMC Evolutionary Biology 7: 13. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-224. (Texto completo en formato PDF)
  13. Kriegs, Jan Ole, Gennady Churakov, Martin Kiefmann, Ursula Jordan, Juergen Brosius, Juergen Schmitz (2006). «Retroposed Elements as Archives for the Evolutionary History of Placental Mammals». PLoS Biol 4 (4): e91. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040091. (Texto compelto en formato PDF)
  14. Nishihara, H.; Maruyama, S.; Okada, N. (2009). «Retroposon analysis and recent geological data suggest near-simultaneous divergence of the three superorders of mammals». Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (13): 5235-5240. PMC 2655268. PMID 19286970. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809297106.
  15. a b Esselstyn, Jacob A.; Oliveros, Carl H.; Swanson, Mark T.; Faircloth, Brant C. (26 de agosto de 2018). «Investigating Difficult Nodes in the Placental Mammal Tree with Expanded Taxon Sampling and Thousands of Ultraconserved Elements». Genome Biology and Evolution 9 (9): 2308-2321. PMC 5604124. PMID 28934378. doi:10.1093/gbe/evx168.
  16. a b Peter J. Waddell, Hirohisa Kishino & Rissa Ota: A Phylogenetic Foundation for Comparative Mammalian Genomics. Genome Informatics 12, 2001, S. 141–154.
  17. a b Matjaž Kuntner, Laura J. May-Collado & Ingi Agnarsson: Phylogeny and conservation priorities of afrotherian mammals (Afrotheria, Mammalia). Zoologica Scripta 40 (1), 2011, S. 1–15.
  18. a b Evolutionary Models for the Diversification of Placental Mammals Across the KPg Boundary Frontiers in genetics.
  19. Springer, M.S.; Burk-Herrick, A.; Meredith, R.; Eizirik, E.; Teeling, E.; O'Brien, S.J.; Murphy, W.J. (2007). «The adequacy of morphology for reconstructing the early history of placental mammals». Biología sistematica 56 (4): 673-684. PMID 17661234. doi:10.1080/10635150701491149.
  20. Seiffert, Erik (2007). «A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morphological, and fossil evidence». BMC Evolutionary Biology 7: 13. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-224. (Texto completo en formato PDF)
  • William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Mark S. Springer et al. (14 de diciembre de 2001). «Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics». Science 294 (5550): 2348-2351. PMID 11743200. doi:10.1126/science.1067179.

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Los afroterios (Afrotheria) son un superorden de mamíferos placentarios compuesto por los actuales órdenes Afrosoricida, Macroscelidea, Tubulidentata, Hyracoidea, Proboscidea y Sirenia. Son animales propios de África, Eurasia y Norteamérica, aunque los sirenios se han expandido por gran parte del planeta.

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Afrotheria ( Basque )

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Afrotheria ugaztun karedun superordena bat da. Hiru klado daude barruan: Afroinsectiphilia, Pseudungulata eta Paenungulata. Afrikar jatorriko animaliak dira guztiak.

Sailkapena

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Basque )

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Afrotheria ugaztun karedun superordena bat da. Hiru klado daude barruan: Afroinsectiphilia, Pseudungulata eta Paenungulata. Afrikar jatorriko animaliak dira guztiak.

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Afrotheria ( Finnish )

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Afrotheria on istukkanisäkkäiden ylälahko joka koostuu kolmesta kladista: Afroinsectiphilia, Pseudungulata ja Paenungulata.

Luokittelu

Lähteet

  • Kriegs, Jan Ole, Gennady Churakov, Martin Kiefmann, Ursula Jordan, Juergen Brosius, Juergen Schmitz: Retroposed Elements as Archives for the Evolutionary History of Placental Mammals. PLoS Biol, 2006, 4. vsk, nro 4, s. e91. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040091. (PDF)
  • William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Mark S. Springer et al.: Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics. Science, 14. joulukuuta 2001, 294. vsk, nro 5550, s. 2348–2351. PubMed:11743200. doi:10.1126/science.1067179.
  • Seiffert, Erik: A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morphological, and fossil evidence. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 2007, 7. vsk, s. 13. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-224. (PDF)

Aiheesta muualla

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Afrotheria on istukkanisäkkäiden ylälahko joka koostuu kolmesta kladista: Afroinsectiphilia, Pseudungulata ja Paenungulata.

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Afrotheria ( French )

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Les Afrotheria (Afrothériens en français) sont un super-ordre de mammifères placentaires. En font partie, entre autres, les taupes dorées, les macroscélides (musaraignes à trompe), les tenrecs, les tubulidentés (oryctéropes), les hyracoïdes (ou damans), les proboscidiens et les siréniens.

Relations évolutives

L'existence du groupe des afrothériens repose uniquement sur des analyses moléculaires. Les analyses génétiques datant des années 1990 ont identifié les afrothériens comme l'un des quatre grands groupes au sein de l'infraclasse des euthériens (contenant des mammifères placentaires). Les relations exactes entre les quatre groupes, Afrotheria, Xenarthra, Laurasiatheria, et Euarchontoglires (alias Supraprimates) sont encore controversées. Une hypothèse propose que la plus ancienne division ait séparé les Afrothériens des trois autres groupes, voilà 105 millions d'années, lorsque l'Afrique a été séparée des autres grandes surfaces continentales (le nom "Afrotheria" dérive de deux racines : Afro pour 'Afrique' et theria 'animal' en grec.) L'analyse génétique et les fossiles suggèrent que les Xénarthres se seraient développés en Amérique du Sud et se seraient séparés des deux autres groupes plus tardivement. Les Laurasiatheriens et les Euarchontoglires seraient plus étroitement liés entre eux qu'avec les deux autres groupes ; ils sont regroupés dans le taxon Boreoeutheria.

Certains chercheurs considèrent que ces classifications, basées sur de récentes analyses comparatives de l'ADN, sont préliminaires ou controversées, parce qu'elles suppriment souvent des relations entre des groupes de mammifères qui avaient été établies sur des considérations morphologiques. Par exemple, l'ordre des Insectivores comprenait de nombreux genres et espèces de mammifères, généralement de petite taille et se nourrissant d'insectes, qui aujourd'hui ne semblent être apparentés que de manière lointaine ; s'ils partagent un certain nombre d'aspects anatomiques et comportementaux, cela serait principalement dû à des évolutions convergentes. Un autre exemple concerne les caractères morphologiques distinctifs des Xénarthres (qui comprend les fourmiliers, les paresseux et les tatous) qui avaient poussé les taxonomistes à regrouper tous les autres Euthériens dans le taxon des épithériens, les Xénarthres étant la plus ancienne branche à s'en être détachée. Pourtant, une autre reconstitution placerait Xénarthres et Afrothériens ensemble dans le clade des Atlantogenates comme un clade frère des Boréoeuthériens.

État actuel

De nombreux afrothériens sont en grand danger d'extinction. L'Afrotheria Specialist Group note que les Afrothériens actuels comprennent près d'un tiers de tous les ordres de mammifères trouvés de nos jours en Afrique et à Madagascar, mais 75 espèces seulement sur plus de 1 200 espèces de mammifères existant sur ce continent. La plupart des espèces classées en Afrotheria se trouvent en Afrique, et seules certaines d'entre elles (comme l'éléphant d'Asie et trois espèces de lamantins) sont présentes ailleurs. Beaucoup sont ainsi en danger.

Ordres et familles

Classification phylogénétique

└─o Afrotheria ├─o Afroinsectivora │ ├─o Macroscelidea │ └─o Afrosoricida └─o Pseudoungulata ├─o Tubulidentata └─o Paenungulata ├─o Hyracoidea └─o Tethytheria ├─o Behemota │ ├─o Embrithopoda† │ ├─o Desmostylia† │ └─o Proboscidea └─o Sirenia 

Controverses sur la classification

On estime que les Afrothériens sont apparus en Afrique à une époque où ce continent était isolé des masses continentales. Leur seule caractéristique commune visible de l'extérieur est le museau mobile, bien qu'il n'existe pas de preuves convaincantes que cette structure soit une homologie de tous les membres de ce groupe.

Le plus grand problème à considérer les Afrothériens comme étant un clade d'origine africaine provient des fossiles. Les premiers fossiles d'ongulés africains et de macroscélidés se trouvent en dehors de l'Afrique. Les afrothériens font partie du clade Atlantogenata.

La monophylie des afrothériens n'est pas universellement acceptée, et des preuves morphologiques désignent les éléphants et leurs proches comme de véritables ongulés. Cela semble également être le cas pour les tubulidentés et les macroscélidés, mais pas des tenrecs et des taupes dorées. Les macroscélidés pourraient aussi être liés aux rongeurs (au sein des glires). Un des mammifères de Madagascar, le Plesiorycteropus (en) possède des affinités inconnues avec les autres groupes, mais pourrait également être un ongulé peut-être lié à l'oryctérope du continent. Certains preuves morphologiques prennent en compte l'affinité des tenrecs et des taupes dorées avec les autres insectivores, en particulier les solenodontidé de la région des Caraïbes. Il s'agit d'une interprétation plus traditionnelles de relations entre tenrecomorphes.

Voir aussi

Références taxonomiques

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( French )

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Les Afrotheria (Afrothériens en français) sont un super-ordre de mammifères placentaires. En font partie, entre autres, les taupes dorées, les macroscélides (musaraignes à trompe), les tenrecs, les tubulidentés (oryctéropes), les hyracoïdes (ou damans), les proboscidiens et les siréniens.

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Afroterios ( Galician )

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A dos afroterios (Afrotheria) son unha superorde de mamíferos placentarios composto por tres clados: Afroinsectiphilia, Pseudungulata e Paenungulata.

Clasificación

Superorde Afrotheria

Clasificación filoxenética

└─o Afrotheria ├─o Afroinsectivora │ ├─o Macroscelidea │ └─o Afrosoricida └─o Pseudoungulata ├─o Tubulidentata └─o Paenungulata ├─o Hyracoidea └─o Tethytheria ├─o Behemota │ ├─o Embrithopoda† │ ├─o Desmostylia† │ └─o Proboscidea └─o Sirenia 

Véxase tamén

Bibliografía

Outros artigos

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Afroterios: Brief Summary ( Galician )

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A dos afroterios (Afrotheria) son unha superorde de mamíferos placentarios composto por tres clados: Afroinsectiphilia, Pseudungulata e Paenungulata.

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Afrotheria ( Indonesian )

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Afrotheria adalah kelompok mamalia (superordo atau klad). Di dalam superordo ini terdapat spesies tikus tanah emas, celurut gajah, tenrec, aardvark, hyrax, gajah dan lembu laut.

Biolog membuat kelompok ini berdasarkan analisis sekuens RNA.[1] Afrotheria adalah salah satu dari empat kelompok besar dalam kelompok Eutheria (hewan berplasenta). Afrotheria berarti "hewan Afrika", yang berasal dari kata "afro" yang berarti Afrika dan "theria" yang berarti hewan

Hubungan antar beberapa ordo Afrotheria masih diteliti. Gajah dan lembu laut berkerabat, dan begitu pula celurut gajah dengan aardvark.[2] Penemuan ini sesuai dengan penelitian ahli anatomi sebelumnya[3][4]

Catatan kaki

  1. ^ Stanhope M.J. et al 1998. Molecular evidence for multiple origins of Insectivora and for a new order of endemic African insectivore mammals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95 (17): 9967–9972. [1]
  2. ^ Svartman M. & Stanyon R. 2012. The chromosomes of Afrotheria and their bearing on mammalian genome evolution. Cytogenet Genome Res.
  3. ^ Simpson G.G. 1945. The principles of classification and a classification of mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 85: 1-350.
  4. ^ Tabuce R; Asher R.J. & Lehmann T. 2008. Afrotherian mammals: a review of current data. Mammalia 72: 2-14.
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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Indonesian )

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Afrotheria adalah kelompok mamalia (superordo atau klad). Di dalam superordo ini terdapat spesies tikus tanah emas, celurut gajah, tenrec, aardvark, hyrax, gajah dan lembu laut.

Biolog membuat kelompok ini berdasarkan analisis sekuens RNA. Afrotheria adalah salah satu dari empat kelompok besar dalam kelompok Eutheria (hewan berplasenta). Afrotheria berarti "hewan Afrika", yang berasal dari kata "afro" yang berarti Afrika dan "theria" yang berarti hewan

Hubungan antar beberapa ordo Afrotheria masih diteliti. Gajah dan lembu laut berkerabat, dan begitu pula celurut gajah dengan aardvark. Penemuan ini sesuai dengan penelitian ahli anatomi sebelumnya

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Afrotheria ( Italian )

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Gli Afroteri (Afrotheria) sono un superordine di mammiferi, comprendente le talpe dorate, i toporagni elefante, i tenrec, gli oritteropi, gli iraci, gli elefanti, i dugonghi e i lamantini.

Evoluzione e tassonomia

Gli Afrotheria sono uno dei 5 superordini in cui viene oggi suddivisa l'infraclasse dei mammiferi placentati (Eutheria); gli altri 4 superordini sono Xenarthra, Laurasiatheria, Meridiungulata ed Euarchontoglires.

Il superordine degli Afrotheria, il cui prefisso richiama le comuni origini africane delle specie di questo raggruppamento, comprende animali apparentemente molto diversi fra di loro, che però, sulla base di analisi molecolari del DNA, sono stati riconosciuti come discendenti di un unico antico progenitore comune.

Le esatte relazioni filogenetiche tra i quattro superordini, sono tuttora abbastanza controverse.

Secondo alcune ricostruzioni gli Afroteri si differenziarono dagli altri tre raggruppamenti circa 105 milioni di anni fa, quando il continente africano si separò dalle altre maggiori masse continentali. Le analisi genetiche e i resti fossili suggeriscono che gli Xenarthra si svilupparono in Sudamerica e si separarono dai rimanenti due gruppi un po' più tardi. I Laurasiatheria e gli Euarchontoglires sono, sotto il profilo cladistico, più strettamente imparentati tra loro e potrebbero venir raggruppati insieme nel clade Boreoeutheria, mentre gli Xenarthra e gli Afrotheria verrebbero inquadrati insieme nel clade Atlantogenata.

Il superordine degli Afrotheria comprende otto famiglie viventi, raggruppate in sei distinti ordini:

Problemi di classificazione

Il superordine (Clade) Afrotheria è stato istituito appena una decina di anni fa solo in base ai risultati di biologia molecolare ottenuti confrontando il DNA dei vari esemplari di mammiferi sopra elencati. Tali risultati però contrastano con le affinità morfologiche, fin qui considerate valide, di questi mammiferi nei confronti di altri ordini come gli Ungulati e gli Insettivori. La biologia molecolare ci dice che gli Afrotheria sono comparsi in Africa 105 milioni di anni fa e si sono sviluppati indipendentemente grazie all'isolamento del continente durato oltre 60 milioni di anni costituendo un unico albero monofiletico. Le analisi morfologiche dentistiche e postcraniali cercano invece di avvicinare i Macroscelididae al clade Euarchontoglires (Roditori e Lagomorfi), gli Afrosoricida agli Insettivori e i restanti ordini agli Ungulati. A sostegno di questa seconda teoria sono anche le attuali conoscenze paleontologiche che dimostrano la presenza di fossili di questi animali all'infuori del continente afro-arabico risalenti all'Eocene e Oligocene, durante il periodo del cosiddetto isolamento. Il ritrovamento di Plesiorycteropus in Madagascar dalle affinità sconosciute (forse connesso ai Tubulidentata ma con possibilità di essere anche un ungulato vero e proprio) e certe affinità degli Afrosoricida con il genere Solenodon (un insettivoro dei Caraibi) sono solo alcuni esempi dell'attuale stato di confusione che regna in materia. Tuttavia, altri recenti studi di biologia molecolare sembrano confermare il monofiletismo del clade Afrotheria dimostrando però anche affinità con gli "Hyopsodontidi" Condylarthra nordamericani del primo Terziario. Ad essere ancora contestata rimane quindi solo la storia biogeografica degli Afrotheria, non più legata ora alla separazione dell'Africa dal Gondwana, ma da altri fattori ancora da esaminare. Uno degli afroteri più basali e antichi è Ocepeia, del Paleocene del Marocco.

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Filogenia

Conservazione

Molti membri degli Afrotheria sembrano essere ad alto rischio di estinzione; se il raggruppamento è accurato, questo fatto sarebbe dovuto ad una perdita di diversità genetica ed evolutiva particolarmente devastante. L'Afrotheria Specialist Group[1] ricorda che gli Afrotheria comprendono tuttora circa un terzo di tutti gli ordini di mammiferi che si trovano attualmente in Africa e nel Madagascar, ma includono solamente 75 specie rispetto alle più di 1 200 di altri mammiferi che vivono in quelle aree. Sebbene la maggior parte delle specie viventi assegnate alla coorte degli Afrotheria vivano in Africa, alcune (come l'elefante indiano e tre specie di manati) si trovano altrove; molti di questi sono in pericolo di estinzione.

Note

  1. ^ Afrotheria Specialist Group Archiviato il 31 dicembre 2007 in Internet Archive. su www.calacademy.org.

Bibliografia

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Italian )

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Gli Afroteri (Afrotheria) sono un superordine di mammiferi, comprendente le talpe dorate, i toporagni elefante, i tenrec, gli oritteropi, gli iraci, gli elefanti, i dugonghi e i lamantini.

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Afrotheria ( Latin )

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Afrotheria est cladus mammalium in Africa endemicorum vel ortorum.

Classificatio

Nexus externi

Commons-logo.svg Vicimedia Communia plura habent quae ad Afrotheria spectant.
Wikispecies-logo.svg Vide "Afrotheria" apud Vicispecies. Wikidata-logo.svg Situs scientifici:NCBIEncyclopedia of LifeFossilworks Mammalia Haec stipula ad mammale spectat. Amplifica, si potes!
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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Latin )

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Afrotheria est cladus mammalium in Africa endemicorum vel ortorum.

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Āfrikas placentāļi ( Latvian )

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Āfrikas placentāļi (Afrotheria) ir zīdītāju klases (Mammalia) augstākā kārta, kas pieder placentāļu infraklasei (Eutheria). Tā apvieno 2 virskārtas. Šīs augstākās kārtas mūsdienu sugas ir sastopamas Āfrikā vai to izcelsme ir saistīta ar Āfriku. Šajā grupā ir apvienoti zeltainie kurmji, Āfrikas skudrulāči, ziloņi un sirēnas. Visu šo dzīvnieku kopējais priekštecis nebija atklāts līdz 1990. gadu beigām.[1] Vēsturiski snuķaiņi tika iedalīti pie nagaiņiem, bet Āfrikas kukaiņēdāji pie kukaiņēdājiem.

Vēsture

Balstoties uz DNS pētījumiem, Āfrikas placentāļu iedalījums tika izveidots 1998. gadā. Ja nebūtu mūsdienu zinātnes iespējas veikt molekulāros pētījumus, Āfrikas kukaiņēdāju grupa nekad nebūtu iekļauta Āfrikas placentāļu kārtā, tomēr ģenētiskie pētījumi pierāda, ka visi Āfrikas placentāļi ir attīstījušies no viena priekšteča.[2] Āfrikas placentāļi kļuva izolēti no pārējiem dzīvniekiem pirms vairāk kā 105 miljoniem gadu, kad Āfrikas kontinents atdalījās no pārējās sauszemes masas.[3] Nākamā kontinentu sadalīšanās Āfrika-Dienvidamerika vairs neatbilst fosilo atradumu savstarpējām ģenētiskajām sakarībām,[4] lai gan pēdējo gadu atklājumi rosinājuši izvirzīt hipotēzi, ka Āfrikas placentāļi un Amerikas placentāļi ir tuvāk radniecīgi kā pārējās placentāļu grupas.[5]

Sistemātika

Atsauces

  1. Stanhope, M.J. et al. (1998) Molecular evidence for multiple origins of Insectivora and for a new order of endemic African insectivore mammals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 95, 9967–9972
  2. Springer MS, Stanhope MJ, Madsen O, de Jong WW: Molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree. Trends Ecol Evol 2004, 19(8):430-438
  3. Springer MS, Murphy WJ, Eizirik E, O'Brien SJ: Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003, 100(3):1056-1061.8.
  4. Archibald JD, Deutschmann DH. 2001. J. Mamm. Evol. 8:107-124.
  5. Prasad, A. B. Allard, M. W., NISC Comparative Sequencing Program and Green, E. D., Confirming the phylogeny of mammals by use of large comparative sequence data sets. Mol Biol Evol 2008. 25: 1795–1808

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Āfrikas placentāļi: Brief Summary ( Latvian )

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Āfrikas placentāļi (Afrotheria) ir zīdītāju klases (Mammalia) augstākā kārta, kas pieder placentāļu infraklasei (Eutheria). Tā apvieno 2 virskārtas. Šīs augstākās kārtas mūsdienu sugas ir sastopamas Āfrikā vai to izcelsme ir saistīta ar Āfriku. Šajā grupā ir apvienoti zeltainie kurmji, Āfrikas skudrulāči, ziloņi un sirēnas. Visu šo dzīvnieku kopējais priekštecis nebija atklāts līdz 1990. gadu beigām. Vēsturiski snuķaiņi tika iedalīti pie nagaiņiem, bet Āfrikas kukaiņēdāji pie kukaiņēdājiem.

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Afrotheria ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De Afrotheria is een superorde van de infraklasse placentadieren van de klasse van de zoogdieren die aanvankelijk gebaseerd was op DNA-technieken. Het omvat de zoogdieren die zich in de tijd dat Afrika niet vast lag aan Europa of Azië, rond 100 miljoen jaar geleden, tot een aparte groep ontwikkelden.

Systematiek

De Afrotheria werd eind jaren negentig van de twintigste eeuw geformuleerd naar aanleiding van DNA-analyses over de onderlinge verwantschap binnen de zoogdieren. Sindsdien wordt deze clade ondersteund door diverse moleculaire-, paleontologische en genoomstudies. De Afrotheria omvat twee grote groepen, de Paenungulata en de Afroinsectiphilia. De slurfdieren (Proboscidea), zeekoeien (Sirenia) en klipdassen (Hyracoidea) worden al decennia als nauwe verwanten beschouwd en aangeduid als Paenungulata. De groep werd reeds in 1945 door de paleontoloog George Gaylord Simpson benoemd door middel van traditionele taxonomische technieken. Binnen de Paenungulata vormen de eerste twee groepen samen met de uitgestorven ordes Embrithopoda en Desmostylia de Tethytheria. De Paenungulata en zeker de Tethytheria behoren tot de minst controversiële zoogdierclades met sterk morfologisch en moleculair bewijs. De Afroinsectiphilia omvat een drietal ordes van Afrikaanse insectivoren: de goudmollen en tenrekachtigen (Afrosoricida), sengi's (Macroscelidea) en aardvarkens (Tubulidentata).[1]

De Afrotheria omvat de volgende groepen:

Ontwikkeling

De oorsprong en de vroegste ontwikkeling van de Afrotheria zijn nog onopgehelderd. Op basis van de moleculaire klok wordt aangenomen dat ongeveer 100 miljoen jaar geleden binnen de placentaire zoogdieren een splitsing plaatsvond in de Afrotheria, Xenarthra en Boreoeutheria (Laurasiatheria en Euarchontoglires). Er is echter geen fossiel bewijs beschikbaar voor deze ontwikkeling en andere studies menen dat deze splitsingen pas plaatsvonden in de eerste honderdduizend jaren van het Paleoceen.[2] Over de verwantschap van de Afrotheria met de andere groepen zijn verschillende visies: als eerste aftakking binnen de Placentalia, verwantschap met de Xenarthra als Atlantogenata, of als een zustergroep van de Boreoeutheria.

Verondersteld wordt dat de basale afrotheriën hoefdierachtige dieren waren gezien de gedeelde hoefdierachtige kenmerken tussen de Paenungulata, Macroscelidea en Tubulidentata, zoals delen van het gebit en de bouw van de enkel. Dit in tegenstelling tot de andere placentaire groepen, waarbij de basale vormen insectivoorachtige zoogdieren waren.[3]

Een ander onduidelijk punt is waar de oudste afrotheriën zich hebben ontwikkeld. Deze vraag wordt met name ingegeven door mogelijke verwantschap met enkele groepen "condylarthen" van de noordelijke continenten. Door diverse studies is een verwantschap gesuggereerd tussen de Macroscelidea en de Hyopsodontidae. De Phenacolophidae en Anthracobunidae worden wel gezien als voorouders of zelfs leden van de Tethytheria. Hypotheses zijn een Afrikaanse origine en uitbreiding naar de noordelijke continenten in de eerste fase van het Paleoceen of een Laurasische oorsprong met vervolgens migratie naar Afrika in de loop van het Paleoceen.[4][5] Direct bewijs voor zowel verwantschap tussen de Macroscelidea en de Hyopsodontidae als tussen de Phenacolophidae, Antracobunidae en de Tethytheria ontbreekt echter. De gesuggereerde verwantschappen zijn met name gebaseerd op de morfologie van de tanden en de bouw van de enkel. Al met al is het bewijs voor de verwantschap van deze groepen "condylarthen" met de Afrotheria zwak. De morfologische overeenkomsten lijken het best te verklaren door convergente evolutie.[6][3]

Tot het midden van de jaren tachtig van de twintigste eeuw waren afrotheriën en Afrikaanse zoogdieren in het algemeen pas bekend van vondsten uit het Egyptische Fajoem uit het Laat-Eoceen. Diverse wetenschappelijke expedities in het noordwesten van Afrika hebben sindsdien echter veel nieuwe informatie opgeleverd en inmiddels zijn vrijwel alle groepen afrotheriën terug te leiden tot soorten uit het Laat-Paleoceen tot Midden-Eoceen. De afrotheriën lijken zich in de eerste fase van het Paleogeen met name ontwikkeld te hebben in mangrovebossen en kustmoerassen langs de Tethysoceaan in het noordwesten van het Afrikaanse continent. De oudste vondsten zijn gedaan in het Ouled Abdoun-bekken in Marokko. Naast enkele basale vormen zoals Ocepeia zijn hier de eerste slurfdieren en klipdassen gevonden.[7]

Van de Afrotheria komen momenteel alleen de Caribische en Amazone-lamantijn, de doejong en de Aziatische olifant buiten het oorsprongsgebied Afrika en Arabië voor. Voorheen had de groep een grotere verspreiding, waarbij de slurfdieren tot aan het einde van het Pleistoceen min of meer mondiaal voorkwamen. In 1768 stierf de Steller-zeekoe van de arctische zeeën uit door overbejaging.

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
  1. Afrotherian mammals: a review of current data. R Tabuce, RJ Asher & T Lehmann. Mammalia (2008).
  2. Afrotheria and break-up of Gondwana. In: Vertebrate Palaeontology. MJ Benton (2005).
  3. a b A memory already like an elephant’s? The advanced brain morphology of the last common ancestor of Afrotheria (Mammalia). J Benoit et al. Brain Behav Evol (2013).
  4. Early Tertiary mammals from North Africa reinforce the molecular Afrotheria clade. R Tabuce et al. Proceedings of the Royal Society (2007).
  5. Afrotherian mammals: a review of current data. R Tabuce, RJ Asher & T Lehmann. Mammalia (2008).
  6. A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morfological and fossil evidence. ER Seiffert. BMC Evolutionary Biology (2007).
  7. The mammal localities of Grand Daoud Quarries, Ouled Abdoun Basin, Morocco, Ypressian: a first survey. E Gheerbrant et al. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France (2003).
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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De Afrotheria is een superorde van de infraklasse placentadieren van de klasse van de zoogdieren die aanvankelijk gebaseerd was op DNA-technieken. Het omvat de zoogdieren die zich in de tijd dat Afrika niet vast lag aan Europa of Azië, rond 100 miljoen jaar geleden, tot een aparte groep ontwikkelden.

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Afrodyr ( Norwegian )

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Afrodyr (Afrosoricida) er ei gruppe av pattedyr, som ein del av dei placentale pattedyra.[1]


Fotnotar

  1. Mammal Species of the World, 3rd edition (MSW3) Taksonomien til American Museum of Natural History er referanse for norsk systematikk

Bakgrunnsstoff

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Afrodyr: Brief Summary ( Norwegian )

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Afrodyr (Afrosoricida) er ei gruppe av pattedyr, som ein del av dei placentale pattedyra.


Fotnotar Mammal Species of the World, 3rd edition (MSW3) Taksonomien til American Museum of Natural History er referanse for norsk systematikk
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Afrotheria ( Norwegian )

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Afrotheria betyr «afrodyr» og er en de fire store gruppene som morkakedyrene kan inndeles i. Gruppens henspiller på at gruppen utviklet seg i Afrika. De første afrotherene oppsto trolig i midtre kritt for rundt 105 millioner år siden.[1] De fleste av gruppens nålevende representanter finnes fremdeles der, med noen unntak (asiatisk elefant og noen sjøkyr). Afrotheria er imidlertid er relativt artsfattig gruppe i dag.

Afrotheria består av ikke veldig mange arter (80 stk.), men disse er forbausende uensartet: børstepinnsvin, elefanter, gullmoldvarper, jordsvin, klippegrevlinger, sjøkyr og springspissmus. At Afrotheria utgjør en naturlig gruppe, ble oppdaget så sent som i 1999 på grunnlag av genetiske slektskapsanalyser. Inntil da hadde systematikere for eksempel plassert elefanter i «nærheten» av upartåede hovdyr, og gullmoldvarper blant insekteterne. I årene som har gått siden gruppen ble oppdaget, har den blitt bekreftet i flere analyser, som også har tatt høyde for artenes morfologiske trekk.

Slektskapsforholdene innen Afrotheria er fremdeles ikke helt klarlagt. Det eneste som er forholdsvis sikkert, er at elefanter, klippegrevlinger og sjøkyr tilsammen danner den naturlig gruppen Paenungulata. Sannsynligvis kan også børstepinnsvin og gullmoldvarper sammenfattes som afrikanske insektetere i Afrosoricida.

Kladogram

Mammalia

Monotremata


Theria

Marsupialia



Eutheria Atlantogenata

Afrotheria



Xenarthra



Boreoeutheria

Laurasiatheria



Euarchontoglires








Eutheria

Boreoeutheria


Atlantogenata

Xenarthra



Meridiungulata



Afrotheria





Eutheria

Afrotheria


Exafroplacentalia

Xenarthra


Boreoeutheria

Laurasiatheria


Euarchontoglires






Systematikk

Afrotheria

Perissodactyla



Paenungulata

Hyracoidea


Tethytheria

Embrithopoda



Desmostylia



Proboscidea



Sirenia







Referanser

  1. ^ Springer, M. S. (2003). «Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary». Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (3): 1056–1061. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.1056S. PMC 298725Åpent tilgjengelig. PMID 12552136. doi:10.1073/pnas.0334222100.

Eksterne lenker

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Norwegian )

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Afrotheria betyr «afrodyr» og er en de fire store gruppene som morkakedyrene kan inndeles i. Gruppens henspiller på at gruppen utviklet seg i Afrika. De første afrotherene oppsto trolig i midtre kritt for rundt 105 millioner år siden. De fleste av gruppens nålevende representanter finnes fremdeles der, med noen unntak (asiatisk elefant og noen sjøkyr). Afrotheria er imidlertid er relativt artsfattig gruppe i dag.

Afrotheria består av ikke veldig mange arter (80 stk.), men disse er forbausende uensartet: børstepinnsvin, elefanter, gullmoldvarper, jordsvin, klippegrevlinger, sjøkyr og springspissmus. At Afrotheria utgjør en naturlig gruppe, ble oppdaget så sent som i 1999 på grunnlag av genetiske slektskapsanalyser. Inntil da hadde systematikere for eksempel plassert elefanter i «nærheten» av upartåede hovdyr, og gullmoldvarper blant insekteterne. I årene som har gått siden gruppen ble oppdaget, har den blitt bekreftet i flere analyser, som også har tatt høyde for artenes morfologiske trekk.

Slektskapsforholdene innen Afrotheria er fremdeles ikke helt klarlagt. Det eneste som er forholdsvis sikkert, er at elefanter, klippegrevlinger og sjøkyr tilsammen danner den naturlig gruppen Paenungulata. Sannsynligvis kan også børstepinnsvin og gullmoldvarper sammenfattes som afrikanske insektetere i Afrosoricida.

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Afrotery ( Polish )

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Afrotery (Afrotheria) – hipotetyczny klad ssaków zaproponowany na podstawie wyników badań molekularnych dla ssaków wywodzących się z kontynentu afrykańskiego, łączący trąbowce, brzegowce, góralkowce, rurkozębne, ryjkonosowe oraz afrosorkowce (tenrekowate i złotokrety).

Pierwsi przedstawiciele afroterów pojawili się ok. 110–100 mln lat temu. Największym problemem w potwierdzeniu ich afrykańskiego pochodzenia jest ubogi zapis kopalny późnej kredy Afryki.

Bibliografia

  1. Stanhope et al., 1998, Molecular evidence for multiple origins of Insectivora and for a new order of endemic African insectivore mammals, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 95:9967-9972.
  2. Springer, Mark S., Michael J. Stanhope, Ole Madsen, and Wilfried W. de Jong. 2004. "Molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree". Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19:430–438 (format pdf) (en)
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Afrotery: Brief Summary ( Polish )

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Afrotery (Afrotheria) – hipotetyczny klad ssaków zaproponowany na podstawie wyników badań molekularnych dla ssaków wywodzących się z kontynentu afrykańskiego, łączący trąbowce, brzegowce, góralkowce, rurkozębne, ryjkonosowe oraz afrosorkowce (tenrekowate i złotokrety).

Pierwsi przedstawiciele afroterów pojawili się ok. 110–100 mln lat temu. Największym problemem w potwierdzeniu ich afrykańskiego pochodzenia jest ubogi zapis kopalny późnej kredy Afryki.

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Afrotheria ( Portuguese )

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A Afrotheria é um clado, podendo receber a denominação de coorte ou superordem, de mamíferos placentários, identificado recentemente por meio de análises genéticas, e que inclui os elefantes, o peixes-boi, o oricteropo, os hiráces, as toupeiras-douradas e os tenrecos.

Relações evolucionárias

Classificação

Outros arranjos incluem as ordens extintas Bibymalagasia e Ptolemaiida. A este grupo, alguns paleontólogos e taxonomistas acrescentam ainda alguns condilartros próximos às famílias Phenacodontidae e Apheliscidae, assim como os placentários primitivos Leptictida, tradicionalmente incluídos nos Insectivora ou Proteutheria. A ligação dos musaranhos-elefantes (Macroscelidea) com os Apheliscidae parece cada vez mais segura (Tabuce et al., 2007), enquanto a alegada relação dos Phenacodonta com os Hyracoidea parece dever-se mais a convergência do que a uma relação de parentesco.

Problemas classificatórios

Acredita-se que a Afrotheria tenha se originado na África no período que estava isolada dos outros continentes. Sua única característica externa comum é o focinho móvel (probóscide), embora há evidência convincente que esta estrutura é de fato homóloga dentre todos os membros deste grupo. O grande problema em considerar os Afrotérios como sendo originalmente um clado africano é seu registro fóssil. As mais antigas evidências fósseis dos ungulados africanos e musaranhos-elefantes foram encontradas fora da África.

A monofilia da Afrotheria não é universalmente aceita. Evidências morfológicas colocam os elefantes e seus aparentados como verdadeiros ungulados (Ungulata); os musaranhos-elefantes juntamente com os Glires; e os tenrecos e toupeiras-douradas na Lipotyphla.

Filogenia

Esta é a filogenia de acordo com estudos genéticos recentes:[1][2][3]

Afrotheria Afroinsectiphilia

Tubulidentata


Afroinsectivora

Macroscelidea



Afrosoricida




Paenungulata

Hyracoidea


Tethytheria

Proboscidea



Sirenia





Referências

  1. Peter J. Waddell, Hirohisa Kishino & Rissa Ota: A Phylogenetic Foundation for Comparative Mammalian Genomics. Genome Informatics 12, 2001, S. 141–154.
  2. Matjaž Kuntner, Laura J. May-Collado & Ingi Agnarsson: Phylogeny and conservation priorities of afrotherian mammals (Afrotheria, Mammalia). Zoologica Scripta 40 (1), 2011, S. 1–15.
  3. Esselstyn, Jacob A.; Oliveros, Carl H.; Swanson, Mark T.; Faircloth, Brant C. (26 de agosto de 2018). «Investigating Difficult Nodes in the Placental Mammal Tree with Expanded Taxon Sampling and Thousands of Ultraconserved Elements». Genome Biology and Evolution. 9 (9): 2308–2321. PMC . PMID 28934378. doi:10.1093/gbe/evx168
  • Tabuce, R., Delmer, C., & Gheerbrant, E. (2007). Evolution of the tooth enamel microstructure in the earliest proboscideans (Mammalia). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 149 (4), 611–628.
  • William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Mark S. Springer; et al. (14 de dezembro de 2001). «Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics». Science. 294 (5550): 2348-2351 !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link)
  • Kriegs, Jan Ole, Gennady Churakov, Martin Kiefmann, Ursula Jordan, Juergen Brosius, Juergen Schmitz (2006). «Retroposed Elements as Archives for the Evolutionary History of Placental Mammals». PLoS Biol. 4 (4): e91 !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link) (pdf version)
  • Pardini AT, O'Brien PC, Fu B, Bonde RK, Elder FF, Ferguson-Smith MA, Yang F, Robinson TJ. (2007). Chromosome painting among Proboscidea, Hyracoidea and Sirenia: support for Paenungulata (Afrotheria, Mammalia) but not Tethytheria. Proc. Biol. Sci. 2007 May 22;274(1615):1333-40.
  • Tabuce, R., Marivaux, L., Adaci, M., Bensalah, M., Hartenberger, J.-L., Mahboubi, M., Mebrouk, F., Tafforeau, P. & Jaeger, J.-J. (2007). Early tertiary mammals from north Africa reinforce the molecular afrotheria clade. Proceedings of the Royal Society B - Biological Sciences, 274 (1614) : 1159-1166. 7 Maio 2007.

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

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A Afrotheria é um clado, podendo receber a denominação de coorte ou superordem, de mamíferos placentários, identificado recentemente por meio de análises genéticas, e que inclui os elefantes, o peixes-boi, o oricteropo, os hiráces, as toupeiras-douradas e os tenrecos.

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Afrotheria ( Swedish )

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Afrotheria är en överordning i infraklassen högre däggdjur med ungefär 80 arter. Denna djurgrupp härstammar som namnet antyder från Afrika, och med några få undantag (den asiatiska elefanten och en art i ordningen hyraxar och sirendjuren) lever de fortfarande på denna kontinent.

Kännetecken

Arterna i djurgruppen skiljer sig mycket i utseende, det finns vattenlevande arter som sirendjuren, jämförelsevis små arter med myror som huvudföda som jordsvin och mycket stora djur som elefanterna. De minsta arterna i överordningen finns i familjen tanrekar med en vikt av upp till 5 gram. Den största arten är stäppelefant (Loxodonta africana), som med en vikt av cirka fem ton är det största landdjuret. Förutom genetiska överensstämmelser kännetecknas dessa djur av en långdragen nos som ofta är rörlig. Det är inte avgjort om nosen kommer från en gemensam förfader eller om den uppkom genom konvergent evolution. Vidare finns i djurgruppen en rad ”primitiva” kännetecken, som de har gemensamt med andra däggdjursgrupper som kloakdjuren. Till exempel ligger hanarnas testiklar i buken och de saknar förmåga att uthärda temperaturskillnader lika bra som andra däggdjur. Orsaken till sistnämnda kännetecken kan dock vara att arterna av Afrotheria lever i varma klimatzoner.

Evolution

Afrotheria skilde sig från andra däggdjursgrupper under kritaperioden för 105 miljoner år sedan vid storkontinenten Gondwanas sönderfall. Gruppens gemensamma förfader var troligtvis ett djur som levde i skogar och som hade insekter och växter som föda. Möjligen var förfadern gemensam med trögdjuren; denna kohort föreslås att kallas Atlantogenata. Liksom flera djurgrupper som under samma tid uppkom på kontinenten Laurasien intog arterna av Afrotheria olika ekologiska nisch i sina utbredningsområden; därför liknar tanrekar och guldmullvadar gruppen insektsätare (till exempel mullvadar), sirendjur har nästan samma kroppsbyggnad som valar och sälar och hyraxar liknar murmeldjur.

Systematik

Överordningen bildas av 6 ordningar.[1]

Dessutom finns flera utdöda djurgrupper som antas vara medlemmar av Afrotheria.

Referenser

Noter

  1. ^ Classification of Afrotheria Arkiverad 4 juni 2011 hämtat från the Wayback Machine., Animal Diversity Web (engelska), läst 10 februari 2010.

Webbkällor

Den här artikeln är helt eller delvis baserad på material från tyskspråkiga Wikipedia

Litteratur

  • Nikaido M, Nishihara H, Hukumoto Y, Okada N (2003) Ancient SINE:s from African endemic mammals. Mol Biol Evol 20: 522–527.
  • William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Mark S. Springer et al., Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics, Science, Vol 294, Issue 5550, 2348-2351, 14 december 2001.
  • Jan Ole Kriegs, Gennady Churakov, Martin Kiefmann, Ursula Jordan, Juergen Brosius, Juergen Schmitz. (2006) Retroposed Elements as Archives for the Evolutionary History of Placental Mammals. PLoS Biol 4(4): e91.[1]
  • David Macdonald: Die große Enzyklopädie der Säugetiere. Deutsche Ausgabe: Könemann in der Tandem Verlag GmbH, 2004 ISBN 3-8331-1006-6

Externa länkar

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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Swedish )

provided by wikipedia SV

Afrotheria är en överordning i infraklassen högre däggdjur med ungefär 80 arter. Denna djurgrupp härstammar som namnet antyder från Afrika, och med några få undantag (den asiatiska elefanten och en art i ordningen hyraxar och sirendjuren) lever de fortfarande på denna kontinent.

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Afrotheria ( Turkish )

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Afrotheria eteneliler alt sınıfının bir üst takımı. Bu molekülergenetik araştırmalar sonucu ortaya konulan taxon birbirlerinden çok farklı görünüşlü 80 civarında türü içermektedir. Takımın tüm türleri Afrika'dan türemiştir ve Asya fili, bir Kır sıçanımsı türü ve Deniz inekleri haricinde bütün türler hala Afrika'da yaşamaktadır.

Özellikleri

Bu memeli grubu, suda yaşayan Deniz inekleri, Karıncayiyen, Yer domuzu veya Filler gibi birbirinden çok farklı türlerden oluşmaktadır. En küçükleri sadece 5 gr ağırlığa ulaşan Küçük uzunkuyruklu tenrek (Microgale parvula) ve en büyükleri ise ağırlığı 5 tona kadar varabilen Afrika filidir (Loxodonta africana). Genetik benzerliklerin yanında dikkati çeken ortak özelliklerinden birisi burunlarının daima uzun ve çoğunlukla hareket ettirilebilir olmasıdır.

Evrim tarihi

105 milyon yıl önce Gondvana kıtasının bölünmesi ile Afrotheria grubu isolasyonda kalıp diğer memelilerden ayrı gelişmiştir. Ortak atalarının ormanda yaşamış bir böcek yiyici olduğu tahmin edilir.

30 - 40 milyon yıl önce Afrika'nın Avrupa'ya ve Asya'ya yaklaşması ile isolasyon durumu kalkmış ve diğer kıtalardan başka memelilerde Afrika'ya yerleşmiş ve bazı Afrotheria türleri de diğer kıtalara geçmiştir.

Eutheria

Afrotheria


Exafroplacentalia

Xenarthra


Boreoeutheria

Laurasiatheria


Euarchontoglires





Sınıflandırma

Afrotheria birbirlerinden çok farklı 6 takımdan oluşmaktadır:

Kır sıçanımsılar, Deniz inekleri ve Filler yakın akrabalıklarından dolayı bazı sınıflandırmalarda Paenungulata adlı bir üst familya içersine konulur.

Kitaplar

  • Nikaido M, Nishihara H, Hukumoto Y, Okada N (2003) Ancient SINEs from African endemic mammals. Mol Biol Evol 20: 522–527.
  • William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Mark S. Springer et al., Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics, Science, Vol 294, Issue 5550, 2348-2351, 14 December 2001.
  • Jan Ole Kriegs, Gennady Churakov, Martin Kiefmann, Ursula Jordan, Juergen Brosius, Juergen Schmitz. (2006) Retroposed Elements as Archives for the Evolutionary History of Placental Mammals. PLoS Biol 4(4): e91.[1]
  • David Macdonald: Die große Enzyklopädie der Säugetiere. Deutsche Ausgabe: Könemann in der Tandem Verlag GmbH, 2004 ISBN 3-8331-1006-6

Dış bağlantılar

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wikipedia TR

Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Turkish )

provided by wikipedia TR

Afrotheria eteneliler alt sınıfının bir üst takımı. Bu molekülergenetik araştırmalar sonucu ortaya konulan taxon birbirlerinden çok farklı görünüşlü 80 civarında türü içermektedir. Takımın tüm türleri Afrika'dan türemiştir ve Asya fili, bir Kır sıçanımsı türü ve Deniz inekleri haricinde bütün türler hala Afrika'da yaşamaktadır.

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Афротерії ( Ukrainian )

provided by wikipedia UK

Афротерії (Afrotheria) — клада (звичайно у ранзі надряду) плацентарних ссавців).

Клада Афротерії запропонована засновуючись на даних молекулярної філогенетики (Eutheria = Afrotheria + Exafroplacentalia). Проте, існує критика щодо сучасного поділу плацентарних ссавців через деяку відмінність від попередньої класифікації, заснованої на морфологічних ознаках.

Afrotheria виникли від 105 до 110 мільйонів років тому, в пізньому крейдяному періоді, відокремившись від сестринської групи Exafroplacentalia.

Місце у філонегенетичній систематиці ссавців

Eutheria

Afrotheria (Златокротові, Дамани, Стрибунцеві, Хоботні, Сирени, Тенреки, Трубкозуби)


Exafroplacentalia

Xenarthra


Boreoeutheria

Laurasiatheria


Euarchontoglires





Систематика

Афротерії (Afrotheria) Afroinsectiphilia Трубкозубі (Tubulidentata)

OrycteropodidaeAardvark2 (PSF) colourised.png (трубкозуб)


Afroinsectivora Стрибунцеві (Слонові землерийки, Macroscelidea)

MacroscelididaeRhynchocyon chrysopygus-J Smit white background.jpg


Тенрекоподібні (Afrosoricida)

Златокротові (Chrysochloridae)The animal kingdom, arranged according to its organization, serving as a foundation for the natural history of animals (Pl. 18) (Chrysochloris asiatica).jpg



Тенрекові (Tenrecidae)Brehms Thierleben - Allgemeine Kunde des Thierreichs (1876) (Tenrec ecaudatus).jpg





Пенунґулята (Paenungulata) Даманоподібні (Hyracoidea)

Даманові (Procaviidae)DendrohyraxEminiSmit white background.jpg


Tethytheria Хоботні (Proboscidea)

Слонові (Elephantidae) Elephant white background.png


СирениSirenia

Морські корови (Dugongidae)Dugong dugon Hardwicke white background.jpg



Ламантини (Trichechidae) Manatee white background.jpg







Особливості складу групи

Здається, багато членів надряду Афротерії зараз знаходяться під загрозою знищення, яке було б дуже руйнівною втратою генетичної і еволюційної різноманітності тварин. Вважається, що афротерії містять приблизно третину всіх родів ссавців у Африці та на Мадагаскарі, але тільки 75 з більш ніж 1200 видів. Хоча більшість видів надряду знайдені в Африці, деякі (наприклад Індійський слон і три види сирен) мешкають на інших континентах, але багато з них також знаходяться у небезпеці.

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Афротерії: Brief Summary ( Ukrainian )

provided by wikipedia UK

Афротерії (Afrotheria) — клада (звичайно у ранзі надряду) плацентарних ссавців).

Клада Афротерії запропонована засновуючись на даних молекулярної філогенетики (Eutheria = Afrotheria + Exafroplacentalia). Проте, існує критика щодо сучасного поділу плацентарних ссавців через деяку відмінність від попередньої класифікації, заснованої на морфологічних ознаках.

Afrotheria виникли від 105 до 110 мільйонів років тому, в пізньому крейдяному періоді, відокремившись від сестринської групи Exafroplacentalia.

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Afrotheria ( Vietnamese )

provided by wikipedia VI

Afrotheria (có nghĩa là Thú châu Phi) là một nhánh động vật có vú, các thành viên còn sinh tồn của nhánh này hoặc hiện đang cư ngụ ở châu Phi hoặc nguồn gốc châu Phi: chuột chũi vàng, chuột chù voi (còn được gọi là sengis), tenrec, lợn đất, đa man, voi, bò biển, và một số phân nhánh đã tuyệt chủng. Chúng chia sẻ vài đặc điểm giải phẫu. Nhiều loài sinh sống chỉ tại châu Phi hoặc cả châu Phi và nơi khác nữa.

Tổ chức

Chú thích

  1. ^ Rodolphe Tabuce et al. (2007) Early Tertiary mammals from North Africa reinforce the molecular Afrotheria clade. Proc. R. Soc. B 2007 274, doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.0229
  2. ^ A Anthony Ravel, Maeva Orliac (2014). “The inner ear morphology of the ‘condylarthran’ Hyopsodus lepidus”. Historical Biology 27 (8): 957–969. doi:10.1080/08912963.2014.915823.
  3. ^ Horovitz, Inés, Gerhard Storch, and Thomas Martin (2005). “Ankle structure in Eocene pholidotan mammal Eomanis krebsi and its taxonomic implications” (PDF). Acta Palaeontol. Pol. 50 (3): 545–548.
  4. ^ Cooper, L. N.; Seiffert, E. R.; Clementz, M.; Madar, S. I.; Bajpai, S.; Hussain, S. T.; Thewissen, J. G. M. (ngày 8 tháng 10 năm 2014). “Anthracobunids from the Middle Eocene of India and Pakistan Are Stem Perissodactyls”. PLoS ONE 9 (10): e109232. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j9232C. PMID 25295875. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109232.

Tham khảo


Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết liên quan đến động vật có vú này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Afrotheria: Brief Summary ( Vietnamese )

provided by wikipedia VI

Afrotheria (có nghĩa là Thú châu Phi) là một nhánh động vật có vú, các thành viên còn sinh tồn của nhánh này hoặc hiện đang cư ngụ ở châu Phi hoặc nguồn gốc châu Phi: chuột chũi vàng, chuột chù voi (còn được gọi là sengis), tenrec, lợn đất, đa man, voi, bò biển, và một số phân nhánh đã tuyệt chủng. Chúng chia sẻ vài đặc điểm giải phẫu. Nhiều loài sinh sống chỉ tại châu Phi hoặc cả châu Phi và nơi khác nữa.

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Afrotheria ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
Царство: Животные
Подцарство: Эуметазои
Без ранга: Вторичноротые
Подтип: Позвоночные
Инфратип: Челюстноротые
Надкласс: Четвероногие
Подкласс: Звери
Инфракласс: Плацентарные
Надотряд: Афротерии
Международное научное название

Afrotheria Stanhope et al. 1998

Отряды
Wikispecies-logo.svg
Систематика
на Викивидах
Commons-logo.svg
Изображения
на Викискладе
NCBI 311790EOL 33304914FW 92584

Афроте́рии (лат. Afrotheria; букв. африканские звери) — ветвь (в ранге надотряда) плацентарных млекопитающих, ранние представители которой сформировались в Афро-Аравии (Африка с Аравийским полуостровом) в период потери ею связи с остальными частями Гондваны.

В состав надотряда афротериев входят шесть рецентных (включающих ныне живущие виды) отрядов: прыгунчики (Macroscelidea), афросорициды (Afrosoricida), трубкозубые (Tubulidentata), даманы (Hyracoidea), сирены (Sirenia) и хоботные (Proboscidea), а также вымершие отряды десмостилии (Desmostylia) и эмбритоподы (Embrithopoda).

Афротерии были выделены в надотряд в результате исследований молекулярных биологов в 1999 году. По одному из вариантов классификации плацентарных, противопоставляются кладе Exafroplacentalia, состоящей из надотряда ксенартры (Xenarthra) и магнотряда бореоэутерии (Boreoeutheria)[1]; по другому — входят вместе с ксенартрами в кладу Atlantogenata, сестринскую к Boreoeutheria[2][3]. Согласно анализу транспозонов, Boreoeutheria, Afrotheria и Xenarthra образуют «мягкую» политомию; следовательно, эти клады разделились практически одновременно[4].

Кладограмма, в которой Afrotheria противопоставляется Exafroplacentalia[1][5].

Eutheria

Afrotheria


Exafroplacentalia

Xenarthra


Boreoeutheria

Laurasiatheria



Euarchontoglires





Кладограмма, отражающая современные представления о филогенетических связях между рецентными отрядами афротериев[1].

Afrotheria грандотряд Afroinsectiphilia

Прыгунчиковые (Macroscelidea)



Афросорициды (Afrosoricida)




Трубкозубые (Tubulidentata)



грандотряд Paenungulata

Даманы (Hyracoidea)



Сирены (Sirenia)




Хоботные (Proboscidea)




Примечания

  1. 1 2 3 Bininda-Emonds O. R. P., Cardillo M., Jones K. E., MacPhee R. D. E., Beck R. M. D., Grenyer R., Price S. A., Vos R. A., Gittleman J. L., Purvis A. The delayed rise of present-day mammals // Nature, 2007, 446 (7135). — P. 507—512. — DOI:10.1038/nature05634.
  2. Murphy W. J., Pringle T. H., Crider T. A., Springer M. S., Miller W. Using genomic data to unravel the root of the placental mammal phylogeny // Genome Research, 2007, 17 (4). — P. 413—421. — DOI:10.1101/gr.5918807.
  3. Nishihara H., Maruyama S., Okada N. Retroposon analysis and recent geological data suggest near-simultaneous divergence of the three superorders of mammals // Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 2009, 106 (13). — P. 5235—5240.
  4. Аверьянов А. О., Лопатин А. В. Макросистематика плацентарных млекопитающих: современное состояние проблемы // Зоологический журнал. — 2014. — Т. 93, № 7. — С. 798—813. — DOI:10.7868/S0044513414070034.
  5. Goloboff P. A., Catalano S. A., Mirande J. M., Szumik C. A., Arias J. S., Källersjö M., Farris J. S. Phylogenetic analysis of 73 060 taxa corroborates major eukaryotic groups // Cladistics, 2009, 25 (3). — P. 211—230. — DOI:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2009.00255.x
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非洲獸總目 ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科

非洲獸總目Afrotheria)是哺乳動物下的一個分支,包含了金毛鼴科象鼩科馬島蝟科土豚蹄兔目海牛

演化關係

非洲獸總目的成立主要是基於分子DNA分析。於1990年代前的基因分析將非洲獸總目看為真獸下綱下的四個大類之一,而牠們之間的關係卻倍受爭議。其中一個學說指非洲獸總目與其他三個分支是最古老的分裂,發生於一亿零五百萬年前非洲從主要大陸分裂時。基因分析及化石紀錄顯示貧齒總目是在南美洲演化,並分化成勞亞獸總目靈長總目。勞亞獸總目及靈長總目之間較為接近,並組成北方獸類(Boreoeutheria)。

一些學者認為這個分類是初步或受爭議的,因為這個分類往往忽略了以往形態學的分類。例如食蟲目原是包含了多種細小及吃昆蟲哺乳動物,擁有因趨同演化的相似解剖及行為,但現今則被分開了。[1]不同形態特徵的貧齒總目引渡了學者將所有其他真獸下綱都分類到上獸類,而貧齒總目則被視為最遠的分類。但是另一項研究則將貧齒總目及非洲獸總目結合在大西洋獸類中。

現時狀況

很多非洲獸總目的成員都是瀕臨滅絕的。若這個分類成立的話,這可能是遺傳學演化多樣性上的重大損失。非洲獸總目包含了差不多非洲馬達加斯加三分之一的哺乳類下的,但這些目下的1200多個物種中只有75種是生活在這些地區。雖然很多現存的非洲獸總目物種都生活在非洲,但仍有一些是在其他地方發現,共通點則是牠們都是瀕危的。

分類

非洲獸總目是真獸下綱下的一個分類,其下現存有六個目:

分類問題

非洲獸總目相信是源自於從其他大陸分裂的非洲,牠們外在的特徵是有可動的鼻端。非洲獸總目的最大問題在於其起源是基於化石紀錄。最早的非洲有蹄類象鼩科的化石證據卻是在非洲以外的地方發現。非洲獸總目被認為是屬於大西洋獸類

非洲獸總目的單源性亦非受到接納,形態證據將及其親屬分類在有蹄類中。這亦發生在土豚及象鼩科上,象鼩科可能與囓形類有關。另一類馬達加斯加近土豚屬,其血緣並不清楚,但可能亦是屬於有蹄類,與土豚有關。一些形態學證據支持馬島蝟科金毛鼴科是Lipotyphlan(如加勒比海地區的溝齒鼩屬)的近親。

參考

  1. ^ Kriegs, Jan Ole, Gennady Churakov, Martin Kiefmann, Ursula Jordan, Juergen Brosius, Juergen Schmitz. Retroposed Elements as Archives for the Evolutionary History of Placental Mammals (PDF). PLoS Biol. 2006, 4 (4): e91. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040091.
  • William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Mark S. Springer; 等. Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics. Science. 14 December 2001, 294 (5550): 2348–2351. doi:10.1126/science.1067179. 引文格式1维护:显式使用等标签 (link)

外部連結

按亞綱分類哺乳類現存動物
原獸亞綱
Prototheria
(泄殖腔類)
Mammalia-percent-schinese.png
兽亚纲
Theria後獸下綱
Metatheria
(有袋類)美洲有袋总目
Ameridelphia 澳洲有袋总目
Australidelphia 真獸下綱
Eutheria
(有胎盤類)非洲兽总目
Afrotheria 异关节总目
Xenarthra 灵长总目
Euarchontoglires 勞亞獸總目
Laurasiatheria
合弓綱中除了哺乳类还包括似哺乳爬行動物盤龍目 Pelycosauria · 獸孔目 Therapsida,它们是哺乳动物的进化来源,都为化石物种
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非洲獸總目: Brief Summary ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科

非洲獸總目(Afrotheria)是哺乳動物下的一個分支,包含了金毛鼴科象鼩科馬島蝟科土豚蹄兔目海牛

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アフリカ獣上目 ( Japanese )

provided by wikipedia 日本語
アフリカ獣上目 Afrotheria.jpg 分類 : 動物界 Animalia : 脊索動物門 Chordata : 哺乳綱 Mammalia 亜綱 : 獣亜綱 Theria 下綱 : 真獣下綱 Eutheria 上目 : アフリカ獣上目 Afrotheria 学名 Afrotheria Stanhope et al., 1998 下位クレード

アフリカ獣上目(アフリカじゅうじょうもく、Afrotheria)は、哺乳類クレード上目)で、キンモグラハネジネズミテンレックツチブタハイラックスゾウマナティー等が含まれる。

語源[編集]

Afrotheria という学名は、アフリカを意味する Afro- と、ギリシア語で「動物」を意味する -theria に由来している。

進化上の関係[編集]

アフリカ獣上目は、分子やDNAの研究に基づいて提唱された。1990年代から始まった遺伝子分析により、真獣下綱の中に目間の上位系統関係を示す4つの単系統群があることが示唆された。

アフリカ獣上目、異節上目ローラシア獣上目真主齧上目の4つの単系統群の間の正確な関係については、まだ論争がある。ローラシア獣上目と真主齧上目は比較的近い関係で、北方真獣類というクレードにまとめられることでは一致するものの、これとアフリカ獣上目、異節上目との関係はいまだにはっきりしない。アフリカ獣上目と他の系統との進化上の分離は1億500万年前にアフリカ大陸南アメリカ大陸から分割された時に生じたという説もある。また、大陸分断後も移住が続きこの3上目の分岐が9000万年前に生じたという説もある[1]。一方で、遺伝子の分析と化石の記録によると、異節上目がまず分かれて島大陸となった南アメリカで進化し、残りの系統がそれより後に分化したとも考えられる。

これらの詳細は北方真獣類の項に詳しい。

現状[編集]

アフリカ獣上目の多くの種は絶滅の高いリスクに晒されている。アフリカ獣上目には、アフリカ及びマダガスカルに生息した哺乳類の3分の1近くが分類されると見積もられるが、現在は化石種を含めて1200種知られるもののうち75種しか生存していない。インドゾウと3種のマナティーはアフリカ以外で進化したが、やはり絶滅の危機にある。

分類[編集]

アフリカ獣上目は真獣下綱に含まれ、現存する6つの哺乳類の目を含む。

脚注[編集]

  1. ^ 長谷川政美、「系統樹をさかのぼって見えてくる進化の歴史」p85、2014年10月25日、ベレ出版、ISBN978-4-86064-410-9

参考文献[編集]

 src=
出典は列挙するだけでなく、脚注などを用いてどの記述の情報源であるかを明記してください。記事の信頼性向上にご協力をお願いいたします。2013年4月
  • Kriegs, Jan Ole, Gennady Churakov, Martin Kiefmann, Ursula Jordan, Juergen Brosius, Juergen Schmitz (2006). “Retroposed Elements as Archives for the Evolutionary History of Placental Mammals”. PLoS Biol 4 (4): e91. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040091. (pdf version)
  • William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, Mark S. Springer et al. (14 December 2001). “Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics”. Science 294 (5550): 2348–2351. doi:10.1126/science.1067179. PMID 11743200.
  • Seiffert, Erik (2007). “A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morphological, and fossil evidence”. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7: 13. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-224. (pdf version)

外部リンク[編集]

哺乳類の現生 原獣亜綱 後獣下綱 異節上目 アフリカ獣上目 真主齧上目 ローラシア獣上目 廃止・希
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アフリカ獣上目: Brief Summary ( Japanese )

provided by wikipedia 日本語

アフリカ獣上目(アフリカじゅうじょうもく、Afrotheria)は、哺乳類クレード上目)で、キンモグラハネジネズミテンレックツチブタハイラックスゾウマナティー等が含まれる。

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original
visit source
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wikipedia 日本語

아프로테리아상목 ( Korean )

provided by wikipedia 한국어 위키백과

아프로테리아상목(Afrotheria)은 금빛두더지코끼리땃쥐, 고슴도치붙이, 땅돼지, 바위너구리, 코끼리 그리고 매너티 등을 포함하고 있는 포유류의 분류군이다.

하위 분류

계통 분류

다음은 포유류 계통 분류이다.[1]

포유강

단공목 오리너구리

수아강

유대하강 캥거루과

진수하강 대서양원류  

아프로테리아상목 아시아코끼리 매너티속

   

빈치상목 아홉띠아르마딜로 큰개미핥기

    북방진수류 로라시아상목

진무맹장목 두더지과

  음낭야수류  

박쥐목 흡혈박쥐아과

  야수진제류 광수류  

유린목 천산갑과

   

식육목 치타캘리포니아바다사자

    진유제류

말목(기제류) 사바나얼룩말검은코뿔소

   

경우제목(우제류) 왈리아아이벡스북대서양참고래

          영장상목

설치동물 시궁쥐속산토끼속

   

영장동물 울보카푸친사람

           

다음은 아프로테리아상목의 계통 분류이다.[2][3]

아프로테리아상목 아프리카호충류 관치목

땅돼지과Aardvark2 (PSF) colourised.png

  아프리카식충류 코끼리땃쥐목

코끼리땃쥐과Rhynchocyon chrysopygus-J Smit white background.jpg

아프리카땃쥐목

황금두더지과The animal kingdom, arranged according to its organization, serving as a foundation for the natural history of animals (Pl. 18) (Chrysochloris asiatica).jpg

   

고슴도치붙이과Brehms Thierleben - Allgemeine Kunde des Thierreichs (1876) (Tenrec ecaudatus).jpg

        근제류 바위너구리목

바위너구리과DendrohyraxEminiSmit white background.jpg

  테티스수류 장비목

코끼리과Elephant white background.png

바다소목

듀공과Dugong dugon Hardwicke white background.jpg

   

매너티과Manatee white background.jpg

         

각주

  1. Nishihara, H.; Maruyama, S.; Okada, N. (2009). “Retroposon analysis and recent geological data suggest near-simultaneous divergence of the three superorders of mammals”. 《Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences》 106 (13): 5235–5240. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.5235N. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809297106. PMC 2655268. PMID 19286970.
  2. Prasad, A. B.; Allard, M. W.; Green, E. D. (2008). “Confirming the Phylogeny of Mammals by Use of Large Comparative Sequence Data Sets”. 《Molecular Biology and Evolution》 25 (9): 1795–1808. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn104. PMC 2515873. PMID 18453548.
  3. Erdal, O.; Antoine, P.-O.; Sen, S.; Smith, A. (2016). “New material of Palaeoamasia kansui (Embrithopoda, Mammalia) from the Eocene of Turkey and a phylogenetic analysis of Embrithopoda at the species level”. 《Palaeontology》 59 (5): 631–655. doi:10.1111/pala.12247.
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