Blue-throated macaws’ cautiousness is one of their behavioral adaptations to prevent nest predation. Parents will often perch just outside their nest and observe their surroundings for predators and other dangers. When returning from foraging, blue-throated macaws will approach the nest tree gradually only after observing the area first. While one parent enters the nest to feed the chicks, the other parent has been observed to stand guard near the nest tree.
Few predators of Ara glaucogularis exist. Adults can be preyed upon by great horned owls, southern caracaras, coati, tayras, and brown capuchin monkeys. Nestlings are preyed upon by crane hawks, while both eggs and nestlings are eaten by toco toucans.
Known Predators:
Blue-throated macaws have very vivid coloration. They have bright turquoise-blue feathers covering their throat, crown, back and the dorsal side of their wings and tail. Golden-yellow feathers grow in a stripe between the blue crown and throat on the side of the face and on the ventral side of their body, wings and tail. On the face there is a sparsely feathered patch of skin near the base of the large dark-colored bill that has 5 or 6 horizontal stripes of blue feathers which are unique for every blue-throated macaw and can be used to individually identify adults. The skin on this patch is predominantly white with a pink tint close to the bill.
Adult blue-throated macaws' mass ranges from 600 to 1000 g with a length of about 85 cm (measured from the top of the head to tip of the long, tapered tail) and a wingspan of approximately three feet or 0.9 m. Ara glaucogularis shows little easily observable sexual dimorphism; however, males tend to be a little bigger than females with approximate masses of 600 g and 800 g respectively.
Newly hatched blue-throated macaws are completely pink and have no feathers. Gray down grows in as they age, and is later replaced by colored, fully-developed feathers. The iris also changes color with age. The eye color of a nestling is initially black and changes to brown soon after the eyes open. When the macaaw is one to three years old, its eyes will turn grey, then white. As the macaw matures, the iris turns yellow and will be more golden at 10 years and will become a richer gold with age. Elderly macaws show a ring of dark grey surrounding the pupil where the iris has become thinner and the back of the retina shows through. This continuum of the iris’ colour can be used to estimate the age of a macaw.
Blue-throated macaws look very similar to the more common blue and gold macaws (Ara ararauna). However, they can be distinguished most clearly by the colors of the feathers on the throat and crown. Blue-throated macaws have 5 or 6 horizontal lines of feathers across the otherwise bare facial patch while blue and gold macaws have 3. Blue-throated macaws are smaller and also have a more nasal, higher-pitched and softer voice in comparison to blue and gold macaws.
Polymorphisms, seasonal and geographical variations have not been observed in blue-throated macaws.
Range mass: 600 to 1000 g.
Average length: 85 cm.
Average wingspan: 0.9 m.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; male larger
In captivity, blue-throated macaws are able to breed up to about 30 to 35 years, after which aging and age related diseases begin to show. Very few macaws in captivity live to 50 years of age. Blue-throated macaws have not been studied very long in the wild, and information on lifespan is yet to be discovered.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 50 (high) years.
Blue-throated macaws inhabit gallery forests and islands of trees surrounded by a tropical savanna. Seasonal rains cause flooding from October to May and transform the savanna into a grassy swamp surrounding permanently dry elevated forest islands. The presence of Motacú palms (Attalea phalerata) is required for the survival of Ara glaucogularis as this species of macaw feeds and nests in these palms more than any other species of plant. They occur most often between the elevations of 200 and 300 m.
Most of blue-throated macaws' habitat is used for cattle ranching. However, the land is unsuitable for cultivation, so habitat alteration for agricultural use does not occur. Although cattle will trample saplings, mature Motacú palms are very hardy and resist damage. This palm is somewhat fire resistant as well. As a result, Motacú palms often dominate the forest fragments in the Beni Savanna.
Range elevation: 200 to 300 m.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland
Wetlands: swamp
Other Habitat Features: agricultural
Blue-throated macaws (Ara glaucogularis) are found only in the Beni department of Bolivia (200 to 300 m above sea-level). In total, blue-throated macaws inhabit an area of 2508 square kilometres.
There are two areas inhabited by two sub-populations of Ara glaucogularis: one is to the northwest of Trinidad (the capital city of Beni), and the other is to the south of Trinidad. This separation may have occurred because of the indigenous peoples that historically inhabited this area and hunted blue-throated macaws to use the feathers in ornamental costume. This separation could also have been caused more recently by the wild-bird trade. With the high population of humans, any blue-throated macaws in the vicinity would have a higher chance of being caught. The formation of large human settlements in this area also resulted in a loss of suitable habitat and habitat fragmentation for this species. Hence, there are no blue-throated macaws in the vicinity of Trinidad.
Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native )
Blue-throated macaws communicate mostly by sound. When they suspect danger, they emit a very loud alarming call and promptly fly off. Blue-throated macaws are known to communicate with each other with quiet caws as well. Toa Kyle (2007b) describes his observations of the “almost fledging” of a blue-throated macaw chick during which the chick received “light caws of encouragement from its parents perched nearby.” Bird trappers have been known to use “caller” bait birds to attract blue-throated macaws of the opposite sex, so acoustic communication is known to have a role for attracting mates. Tactile communication is used as well. Mates show affection for each other and their chicks quite often in the form of preening. Like all birds, blue-throated macaws perceive their environment through audio, visual, tactile, and chemical stimuli.
Communication Channels: tactile ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Ara glaucogularis is currently rated as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List and is listed in Appendix I by CITES. Trapping is illegal as blue-throated macaws have been protected by the national legislation of Bolivia and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1986.
Trapping for the pet trade is the main reason that blue-fronted macaws are so critically endangered. The rarity of this species drove the selling price up resulting in increased pressure from trapping. As more birds were caught, blue-throated macaws became rarer. This became a vicious cycle that greatly reduced the wild population of blue-throated macaws to the numbers presently observed. There are currently an estimated 50 to 250 individuals in the wild.
Since spix's macaws (Cyanopsitta spixii) went extinct in 2000, Ara glaucogularis is now the most rare species of macaw in the world. With a wild population estimated to be between 50 and 250 individuals, extreme conservation actions are necessary. The World Parrot Trust has many volunteers and employees working towards the conservation of blue-throated macaws. These people monitor the nests to protect the chicks from predation. Chicks are also examined periodically to ensure that they are healthy and receiving adequate food from their parents. If the chick is not doing as well as is expected, then it is supplemented with formula. New nest boxes have been built and current nest sites improved. Support from the local landowners has also been established.
CITES: appendix i
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: critically endangered
There are no known adverse effects of Ara glaucogularis on humans.
Blue-throated macaws are used as pets. Their feathers have also been used for decoration of ornamental costume for indigenous groups.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; body parts are source of valuable material
Blue-throated macaws play a role as prey in their ecosystem. They are also subject to parasites such as mites and botfly larvae. As frugivores, they are likely an important seed disperser for native, fruiting plants.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds
Blue-throated macaws do not eat seeds and nuts to the same extent as many other macaw species do. Instead, they eat primarily fruit from large palms. The palm species Attalea phalerata is the most predominant source, but they will also eat from Acrocomia aculeata and Mauritia fleuxosa. The macaws eat the mesocarp from ripe and nearly ripe fruit and have also been observed drinking the liquid from very immature fruit.
Plant Foods: leaves; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit
Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore )
Blue-throated macaws are monogamous and mate for life. It is not known if these macaws will pair with another mate if their original mate dies. Nothing else is known about mating systems for Ara glaucogularis in the wild.
Mating System: monogamous
Blue-throated macaws breed once a year if the environmental conditions permit them; however, if the eggs or nestlings are lost, the breeding pair may produce a second clutch in the same breeding season. It has been speculated that the two sub-populations breed at slightly different times: the northern population breed from August to November and the southern population breed from November to March. The female will lay one to three eggs per clutch and incubates for 26 days. Blue-throated macaws have a mass of approximately 18 g at hatching. The nestlings fledge at 13 to 14 weeks. Young blue-throated macaws will not be fully independent of their parents for a full year. Blue-throated macaws will be sexually mature at about 5 years.
Ara glaucogularis usually nests in cavities of palm trees, most often Attalea phalerata, although it will nest in other palm species as well. Dead palms are ideal to nest in as they are hollowed out by large grubs after the tree has died. Some macaw species, including Ara glaucogularis, will eat the palm fronds to an extent that will kill the tree. The trunk of the palm is hollowed out by grubs resulting in the creation of a potential nest. It is not yet known whether this is coincidence or if these birds do this intentionally to create nest sites.
Nesting pairs of Ara glaucogularis don’t consistently stay at one nest for consecutive breeding seasons and will usually search for different nesting sites every year.
Breeding interval: Blue-throated macaws breed once or twice yearly.
Breeding season: Blue-throated macaws breed from November to March.
Range eggs per season: 1 to 3.
Average time to hatching: 26 days.
Range fledging age: 13 to 14 weeks.
Average time to independence: 1 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 5 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 5 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous
A mating pair of Blue-throated macaws must find a suitable nest before fertilization occurs. If a nest site cannot be found, the pair may excavate their own nest. While deciduous trees can be used, dead palms are easier to hollow out and are used quite often. Prospective parents must also withstand competition for nest sites from other macaw species such as Ara ararauna, Ara chloroptera and Ara macao as well as toco toucans, large woodpeckers, barn owls, bats, and bees.
Female blue-throated macaws lay the eggs and incubate them until they hatch. Males feed the females during incubation. Both parents feed the nestlings once the chicks have hatched and the precocial chicks must be kept warm by their parents before their feathers grow in. After the nestlings’ feathers grow in they are often left alone while both parents gather food. The young macaws are still dependent upon their parents for food after they fledge until they are fully weaned and capable of foraging by themselves. Even after the juvenile macaws are able to provide for themselves, it has been observed that young blue-throated macaws will stay with their parents up to a year. During this time, the parents will skip an entire breeding season.
Parental Investment: altricial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning
The blue-throated macaw (Ara glaucogularis), also known as the Caninde macaw or Wagler's macaw,[3] is a macaw endemic to a small area of north-central Bolivia, known as Los Llanos de Moxos. In 2014 this species was designated by law as a natural patrimony of Bolivia.[4] Until 2010, it was hunted by native people to make feathered "Moxeño" headdresses for "machetero" ritual dances.[5]
Recent population and range estimates suggest that about 208–303 adult individuals remain in the wild.[6] Its demise was brought upon by nesting competition, avian predation, and a small native range, exacerbated by indigenous hunting and capture for the pet trade.[7] Current threats continue to include hunting and trapping as well as tree cutting, invasive species, disease, and use of powders or foams used to extinguish fires.[8] It is Critically Endangered in the wild and is protected by trading prohibitions.[9]
The name "Wagler's macaw" is in honor of German herpetologist and ornithologist Johann Georg Wagler, who processed many of Johan Baptist von Spix's Brazilian collections at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, and first described the blue macaws for a European readership in Monographia Psittacorum (1832).
Ara is from a Tupi Indian word for macaw; glauco (glaucous Latin for greyish-blue or green) + gularis (Latin: throat). The Blue-throated macaw is one of 8 extant species (and a few extinct species) in genus Ara of large long-tailed parrots collectively called macaws. The genus Ara is one of six genera of Central and South American macaws in the tribe Arini, which also includes all the other long-tailed New World parrots. Tribe Arini together with the short-tailed Amazon and allied parrots and a few miscellaneous genera make up subfamily Arinae of Neotropical parrots in family Psittacidae of true parrots.
The blue-throated macaw was originally thought to be a subspecies (Ara ararauna caninde) of the similar-looking blue-and-yellow macaw.[10]
The blue-throated macaw is about 85 cm (33 in) long including the length of its tail feathers and has a wingspan of approximately three feet or 90 cm.[11] It weighs about 900 g (32 oz) to 1,100 g (39 oz). There is little easily observable sexual dimorphism; however, males tend to be a little bigger than females with approximate masses of 750 g and 950 g respectively.[11] Upperparts are turquoise-blue, slightly duller on crown and brighter on rump. Underparts largely bright yellow but the vent is pale blue. It has a bare facial patch obscured by blue feather-lines merging into a blue lower cheek and throat, separated from its crown by a narrow yellow stripe and bare pink skin around base of the large, black bill.[12] On the face there is a sparsely feathered patch of skin near the base of the large dark-colored bill that has 5 or 6 horizontal stripes of blue feathers which are unique for every blue-throated macaw and can be used to individually identify adults.[11]
The adults have yellow irises and the juveniles have brown irises.[9] The eye color of a nestling is initially black and changes to brown soon after the eyes open. Between one and three years old, the eyes will turn grey, then white. As the macaw matures, the iris turns yellow and the amount of gold increases with age after 10 years. Elderly macaws show a ring of dark grey surrounding the pupil where the iris has become thinner and the back of the retina shows through.[11] It can be separated from the slightly larger blue-and-yellow macaw by the blue (not black) throat, the blue (not green) crown and the lack of contrast between the remiges and upperwing coverts.
The blue-throated macaw lives in the Llano de Moxos of the Beni Department of Bolivia, nesting in "Islas" (islands) of palm trees that dot the level plains. It is not a forest-dwelling bird. This species is one of the rarest in the world. There are two areas inhabited by two sub-populations of Ara glaucogularis: one is to the northwest of Trinidad (the capital city of Beni), and the other is to the south of Trinidad.[11] This complex landscape consists of grasslands, marshes, forest islands, and corridors of forests along waterways.[13] They occur most often between the elevations of 200 and 300 m.[11]
Blue-throated macaws are most frequently found in monogamous pairs, but small groups of 7–9 do occur and one large roosting group of 70 is known.[12] It is not known if these macaws will pair with another mate if their original mate dies. Their main mode of locomotion is flying, but they are also able to climb trees, maneuver along branches and walk on the ground. These birds are active during the day and usually stay in one general area. Blue-throated macaws communicate mostly by sound. When they suspect danger, they emit a very loud alarming call and promptly fly off. Blue-throated macaws are known to communicate with each other with quiet caws as well.[11]
Blue-throated macaws do not eat seeds and nuts to the same extent as many other macaw species do. Instead, they primarily eat fruit from large palms. The palm species Attalea phalerata is the most predominant source, but they will also eat from Acrocomia aculeata and Mauritia flexuosa. The macaws eat the mesocarp from ripe and nearly ripe fruit and have also been observed drinking the liquid from very immature fruit.[11]
Blue-throated macaws usually breed once a year but if the eggs or nestlings are lost, they may produce a second clutch in the same breeding season. A clutch consists of one to three eggs and incubates for 26 days. Nestlings have a mass of approximately 18 g at hatching and fledge at 13 to 14 weeks. The young macaws are still fully dependent upon their parents for food after they fledge until they are capable of foraging by themselves. Even after this occurs, it has been observed that young blue-throated macaws will stay with their parents up to a year. During this time, the parents will skip an entire breeding season. Blue-throated macaws reach sexual maturity at about 5 years of age.[11]
Blue-throated macaws usually nest in cavities of palm trees, most often Attalea phalerata, although it will nest in other palm species as well. Dead palms are the preferred nest as they are hollowed out by large grubs after the tree has died. Nesting pairs of blue-throated macaws do not consistently stay at one nest for consecutive breeding seasons and will usually search for different nesting sites every year.[11] In the wild the blue-throated macaw often compete for nesting-holes in trees with the blue-and-yellow macaw, green-winged macaw, scarlet macaw, woodpeckers, toco toucans, barn owls, bats, and bees.[11] The number of suitable nest trees has been in decline due to the large amounts of deforestation in its natural habitat.[9]
The blue-throated macaw has a very small population and is on the verge of extinction in the wild. It is listed on the IUCN Red List as critically endangered.[1] It is also listed in Appendix I by CITES. Trapping is illegal as blue-throated macaws have been protected by the national legislation of Bolivia.[11] According to locals the wild population of the blue-throated macaw in the 1980s was thought to number 500-1000 individuals. Although trapping ceased later in the 1990s, the wild population remains low, with previous estimates of between 110–130 individuals,[14] that more recently have been increased to about 350–400 after surveys by Armonia Association and the Loro Parque Fundacion found additional birds.[15] The World Parrot Trust has many volunteers and employees working to monitor the nests to protect the chicks from predation. Chicks are also examined periodically to ensure that they are healthy and receiving adequate food from their parents. If necessary, the chick is supplemented with formula. Nest boxes have been built, current nest sites improved, and support from the local landowners has been established.[11] In 2008, American Bird Conservancy partnered with the World Land Trust-US, Loro Parque Fundacion, and Assiociacion Armonia to create the blue-throated macaw Reserve. In 2010, the reserve was expanded by 2,800 acres (formerly Juvena Ranch) and is now 11,500 acres.[13]
Armonia has also created a program in recent years to replace the real feathers in traditional indigenous 'machetero' headdresses with artificial feathers created from hand-painted palm fronds. The feathers for the headdresses were previously culled from several species of macaw, including the Blue-throated, and as many as 10 birds were killed to make one head-piece.[16]
On November 4, 2013, the blue-throated macaw was listed under the Endangered Species Act, per the USFWS Final rule. [1] Because of their large captive population, the American Federation of Aviculture asked that captive-born blue-throated macaws not be listed through a 19-page submission to the federal government. [2]
They are relatively easy to find in captivity, and the captive population consists of about 1000–1100 individuals.[17] Individuals are kept in several zoos around the world, among them the Santa Cruz zoo in Bolivia. Captive blue-throated macaws have successfully hybridized with the military macaw, producing offspring known by aviculturists as Corrientes macaws.[18]
Several breeding and conservation schemes in zoos have now been set up to save this species. Other projects have been started to protect the remaining wild population, but at present, numbers are still decreasing.
In the wild, within the palm groves of Bolivia, birds nest in tree hollows created in dead palm trunks, rotten knot-holes and dead limbs of trees. There is some evidence that parents maintain the third chick of a clutch with minimal food as an insurance against the loss of the older dominant chicks. If disaster should befall the larger chick, the parent can switch to feeding the youngest, and it will exhibit a constant growth curve from the day of active feeding. It is this physiological response that enables researchers to raise the third chick of a clutch in captivity and then return them to the wild nests when they are nearing fledge.
Blue-throated macaws are early nesters and utilize these rare resources of nest holes before the other macaws are in breeding condition.
The blue-throated macaw is sometimes, albeit uncommonly kept as a pet companion parrot. When tame, it tends to be an outgoing, docile and affectionate bird, even cuddly with humans in some circumstances. An intelligent bird; like most parrots, it requires several hours outside its cage every day and regular social interaction with humans or other birds in order to remain healthy, although it is sometimes known to bully other birds kept alongside it. The species is known for its predilection for damaging and disassembling its keeper's property, as well as opening and escaping from its cage if left unsupervised. It may be less noisy than other large macaw species and while it is not known for its talking ability, it may learn to mimic a few words.[19][10] The World Parrot Trust recommends that the blue-throated macaw be kept in an enclosure of 15 metres in length and that this species should not be kept indoors permanently. It may live for over 50 years in captivity.[20]
Top of head is blue.
Upper body.
The blue-throated macaw (Ara glaucogularis), also known as the Caninde macaw or Wagler's macaw, is a macaw endemic to a small area of north-central Bolivia, known as Los Llanos de Moxos. In 2014 this species was designated by law as a natural patrimony of Bolivia. Until 2010, it was hunted by native people to make feathered "Moxeño" headdresses for "machetero" ritual dances.
Recent population and range estimates suggest that about 208–303 adult individuals remain in the wild. Its demise was brought upon by nesting competition, avian predation, and a small native range, exacerbated by indigenous hunting and capture for the pet trade. Current threats continue to include hunting and trapping as well as tree cutting, invasive species, disease, and use of powders or foams used to extinguish fires. It is Critically Endangered in the wild and is protected by trading prohibitions.
The name "Wagler's macaw" is in honor of German herpetologist and ornithologist Johann Georg Wagler, who processed many of Johan Baptist von Spix's Brazilian collections at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, and first described the blue macaws for a European readership in Monographia Psittacorum (1832).
