quaking aspen articles - Encyclopedia of Life

Management Considerations

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MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Populus tremuloides
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Quaking aspen is one of the most important timber trees in the East.
Its wood is used primarily for particleboard, especially waferboard and
oriented strandboard, and for pulp. In the Great Lakes States, quaking
aspen is the preferred species for making oriented strandboard. Quaking
aspen fibers are well suited for making fine paper. Some quaking aspen
is used for lumber. Quaking aspen lumber is used for making boxes,
crates, pallets, and furniture. A small but growing volume is made into
studs. Quaking aspen wood is little used in the West, except in
Colorado, where it is used for pulp and particleboard [125]. Specialty
products from quaking aspen wood include excelsior, matchsticks, and
tongue depressors. Quaking aspen pellets are used for fuel [125,170].

The wood of quaking aspen is light, soft, and straight grained. It has
good dimensional stability and it turns, sands, and holds glue and paint
well. It has relatively low strength, however, and is moderately low in
shock resistance. Both sapwood and heartwood have low decay resistance
and are difficult for preservatives to penetrate [125,170]. Quaking
aspen wood warps with conventional processing, but saw-dry-rip
processing controls warping [101].

IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Quaking aspen forests provide important breeding, foraging, and resting
habitat for a variety of birds and mammals. Wildlife and livestock
utilization of quaking aspen communities varies with species composition
of the understory and relative age of the quaking aspen stand. Young
stands generally provide the most browse. Quaking aspen crowns can grow
out of reach of large ungulates in 6 to 8 years [116]. Although many
animals browse quaking aspen year-round, it is especially valuable
during fall and winter, when protein levels are high relative to other
browse species [159].

Large wild ungulates: Elk browse quaking aspen year-round in much of
the West, feeding on bark, branch apices, and sprouts [38,42,102]. In
some areas, elk use it mainly in winter [116]. In northwestern Wyoming,
elk begin browsing quaking aspen as soon as they move onto winter ranges
in November and continue to use it through March [6].

Quaking aspen is important forage for mule and white-tailed deer. Deer
consume the leaves, buds, twigs, bark, and sprouts [42,102,158]. New
growth on burns or clearcuts is especially palatable to deer [42,43].
Deer in many areas use quaking aspen year-round [23], although in some
western states, deer winter below the aspen zone [42,43]. Quaking aspen
communities are described as the major "deer-producing forest type" in
the north-central United States [31]. In the Great Lakes States,
quaking aspen is primary browse for white-tailed deer and moose [23].
Stands less than 30 years of age provide optimum forage for deer in
Minnesota [31]. In some locations, sprouts provide key summer forage
for deer after herbaceous species have cured [42,43]. Quaking aspen is
one of the most important items in the summer diet of mule deer on the
Kaibab National Forest of Arizona [159,161], and comprises up to 27
percent of the summer diet of mule deer in parts of central Utah [113].
However, it is relatively unimportant deer browse in parts of South
Dakota [159]. Mule deer in Utah have been observed consuming large
amounts of quaking aspen leaves after autumn leaf fall [42,161].

Quaking aspen is valuable moose browse for much of the year [23]. Moose
utilize it on summer [42] and winter ranges [23,42,135]. Quaking aspen,
paper birch (Betula papyrifera), and willows (Salix spp.) make up more
than 95 percent of the winter hardwood browse utilized by moose on
Alaska's Kenai Peninsula [149]. Relatively high levels of moose use
have been reported from early summer through late fall in Minnesota [84]
and Idaho [135]. Young stands generally provide the best quality moose
browse [42]. However, researchers in Idaho found that in winter, moose
browsed mature stands of quaking aspen more heavily than nearby
clearcuts dominated by quaking aspen sprouts [135].

Bison once favored quaking aspen-grassland transition zones in Manitoba
and Saskatchewan [32,102]. However, little is known about the historic
importance of quaking aspen browse to bison. Meagher [105] found that
woody plants made up only 1 percent of the diet of bison in Yellowstone
National Park, and she did not list quaking aspen as one of the woody
species bison used.

Bears: Black and grizzly bears feed on forbs and berry-producing shrubs
in quaking aspen understories. Quaking aspen forests in Alberta provide
excellent denning and foraging sites for black bear [42].

Lagomorphs: Rabbits and hares feed on quaking aspen in summer and
winter [42,43]. In winter, snowshoe hare and cottontail rabbits eat
quaking aspen buds, twigs, and bark [42,43]. Quaking aspen is one of
the most important and nutritious summer browse species for rabbits in
Alberta [42], and is a preferred winter food of snowshoe hare in
Manitoba [20]. Pikas also feed on quaking aspen buds, twigs, and bark
[158]. Lagomorphs may girdle suckers or even mature trees [23,102]. In
some parts of Canada, fairly high quaking aspen mortality has been
attributed to rabbits and hares [20,102].

Rodents and shrews: Small rodents such as squirrels, pocket gophers,
mice, and voles feed on quaking aspen during at least part of the year
[43,88,158]. Mice and voles frequently consume quaking aspen bark below
snow level, and can girdle suckers and small trees [23,43,88,152]. The
southern red-backed vole, deer mouse, and white-footed mouse are
dominant small mammals in quaking aspen communities of northern
Minnesota and upper Michigan. Small mammal populations in quaking aspen
generally fluctuate widely with stand age and annual variation in animal
population size. Highest densities typically occur in mature quaking
aspen stands. Field mice (Peromyscus spp.), for example, are most
abundant in mature quaking aspen communities [129]. The red-backed
vole, however, is most abundant in sapling stands, somewhat less
abundant in mature stands, and least common in clearcuts.

Quaking aspen provides food for porcupine in winter and spring
[23,42,43]. In winter, porcupine eat the smooth outer bark of the upper
trunk and branches. Porcupine girdling of quaking aspen has killed
large tracts of merchantable trees in Minnesota. In spring, porcupine
eat quaking aspen buds and twigs [43].

Beaver consume the leaves, bark, twigs, and all diameters of quaking
aspen branches [43]. They use quaking aspen stems for constructing dams
and lodges [42,102]. At least temporarily, beaver can eliminate quaking
aspen from as far as 400 feet (122 m) from waterways [6,23]. An
individual beaver consumes 2 to 4 pounds (1-2 kg) of quaking aspen bark
daily, and it is estimated that as many as 200 quaking aspen stems are
required to support one beaver for a 1-year period [42,43].

Birds: Quaking aspen communities provide important feeding and nesting
sites for a diverse array of birds [39]. Bird species using quaking
aspen habitat include sandhill crane, western wood pewee, six species of
ducks, blue, ruffed, and sharp-tailed grouse, band-tailed pigeon,
mourning dove, wild turkey, red-breasted nuthatch, and pine siskin.
Quaking aspen is host to a variety of insects that are food for
woodpeckers and sapsuckers [42]. Generally, moist to mesic quaking
aspen sites have greater avian species diversity than quaking aspen
stands on dry sites [40,42].

Many bird species utilize quaking aspen communities of only a particular
seral stage. Research at a northern Utah site suggests that blue
grouse, yellow-rumped warbler, warbling vireo, dark-eyed junco, house
wren, and hermit thrush prefer mature quaking aspen stands. The
MacGillivray's warbler, chipping and song sparrows, and lazuli bunting
occur in younger stands [39,42]. Bluebirds, tree swallow, pine siskin,
yellow-bellied sapsucker, and black-headed grosbeak favor quaking aspen
community edges [39].

Ruffed grouse: Through most of its range, ruffed grouse depends on
quaking aspen for foraging, courting, breeding, and nesting sites
[23,42,70]. It uses quaking aspen communities of all ages. Favorable
ruffed grouse habitat includes quaking aspen stands of at least three
different size classes [23,70]. Young (2- to 10-year-old) stands
provide important brood habitat, and 10- to 25-year-old stands are
favored overwintering and breeding areas [122]. Quaking aspen leaves
and buds are readily available in abundant quantities in stands greater
than 25 years of age, and such older stands are used for foraging
[70,122].

Ruffed grouse chicks find protection in dense, young aspen suckers as
early as 1 year after fire or other disturbance [70]. Pole-size stands
appear to offer the best breeding habitat and may support one breeding
bird per 3 to 4 acres (1.2-1.6 ha). Breeding generally does not occur
in stands exceeding 25 years of age or with a density less than
approximately 2,000 stems per acre [23].

Quaking aspen buds, catkins, and leaves provide an abundant and
nutritious, year-long food source for ruffed grouse [23,70]. Vegetative
and flower buds are the primary winter and spring foods of the ruffed
grouse. Ruffed grouse eat 6 times more quaking aspen buds than buds
from all other species combined [70]. It is estimated that ruffed
grouse can consume more than 45 quaking aspen buds per minute and can
satisfy their daily winter food needs in as little as 15 to 20 minutes
[23]. Ruffed grouse generally begin feeding on staminate flower buds
from several weeks prior to the period of snow accumulation, and continue
well into early spring [23,70]. Male ruffed grouse feed on staminate
catkins until at least early May [70]. Nesting hens consume large
quantities of new quaking aspen leaves early in the spring [23,70].
Ruffed grouse consume quaking aspen leaves throughout the summer [23],
and the leaves are considered to be the second most important food
source during the fall. Ruffed grouse appear to prefer certain clones.
Buds from some clones may be up to 30 percent richer in protein than
buds from neighboring clones [70].

Livestock: Most classes of domestic livestock use quaking aspen.
Domestic sheep and cattle browse the leaves and twigs [158,161].
Domestic sheep browse quaking aspen more heavily than cattle [158,161].
It is estimated that domestic sheep consume 4 times more quaking aspen
sprouts than cattle. Heavy livestock browsing can adversely impact
quaking aspen growth and regeneration [42,43,161].

PALATABILITY :
Quaking aspen is palatable to all browsing livestock and wildlife
species [38,23,42,84,161,169]. The buds, flowers, and seeds are
palatable to many bird species including numerous songbirds and ruffed
and sharp-tailed grouse [42,168].

Palatability of quaking aspen for livestock and wildlife species has
been rated as follows [48]:

                       CO       MT       ND       OR       UT       WY
Cattle                Fair     Fair     Fair     ----     Fair     Fair
Domestic sheep        Fair     Good     Good     ----     Fair     Good
Horses                Fair     Fair     Fair     ----     Fair     Fair
Pronghorn             ----     ----     Poor     ----     Fair     Fair
Elk                   Good     Fair     ----     ----     Good     Good
Mule deer             Good     Fair     Fair     ----     Good     Good
White-tailed deer     Good     Fair     Fair     ----     ----     Good
Small mammals         ----     Fair     ----     ----     Fair     Good
Small nongame birds   ----     Fair     Fair     ----     Fair     Fair
Upland game birds     ----     Good     Good     ----     Fair     Good
Waterfowl             ----     ----     ----     ----     Poor     Poor

NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Overall energy and protein values of quaking aspen are rated "fair"
[48]. Nutritional content of quaking aspen browse varies seasonally, by
plant part, and by clone [11,40,159]. Protein content drops as the
growing season progresses [42,179]. On a Utah site, average leaf
protein dropped from 17 percent in early June to 3 percent at
abscission. Clonal variation in leaf protein ranged from 13.4 to 20.9
percent in June and from 10.1 to 14.6 percent in September. Average
twig protein dropped from 17 percent in spring to 6 to 7 percent in
winter. Twig nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium levels dropped from
spring to winter, but twig calcium, magnesium, sodium, and fat levels
increased. Phosphorus values in September averaged only 58 percent of
those in June [159].

Mean composition of quaking aspen terminal shoots, collected in March
and April in Soldotna, Alaska, was as follows [149]:

     dry matter (%)                       43.6
     gross energy (kcal/g)                 5.1
     crude protein (%)                     7.9
     neutral-detergent fiber (%)          54.9
     acid-detergent fiber (%)             40.1
     lignin (%)                           10.5
     ash (%)                               1.9
     in-vitro digestibility for moose (%) 42.0

COVER VALUE :
Wild and domestic ungulates use quaking aspen for summer shade, and
quaking aspen provides some thermal cover for ungulates in winter
[42,35,152]. Seral quaking aspen communities provide excellent hiding
cover for moose, elk, and deer [42,161]. Deer use quaking aspen stands
for fawning grounds in the West [94]. Ungulates generally do not use
quaking aspen much in winter. Perala [122] reported that in the Great
Lake States, pure quaking aspen stands provided white-tailed deer with
relatively poor insulation and protection from winter winds compared to
adjacent stands of conifers.

Quaking aspen provides good hiding and thermal cover for many small
mammals [152]. Snowshoe hare use it for hiding and resting cover in
summer [42,43]. Beaver use quaking aspen branches for dams and lodges.

A variety of bird species use quaking aspen for hiding, nesting, and
roosting cover [42]. Sapling and pole-size stands provide especially
good winter cover for birds [23]. Snow tends to accumulate earlier and
deeper in quaking aspen than in adjacent conifer stands, and ruffed
grouse use the deep snow for burrowing cover in winter [122]. Dense
stands of fairly small diameter stems ( less than 6 inches [15cm]) provide the
best protection from predators. Overall cover value for ruffed grouse
is enhanced in stands containing several size classes [70].

Over 4 years, 22 to 65 pairs of breeding birds were found in 10 acres (4
ha) of quaking aspen in northern Utah. Species nesting in quaking aspen
included the broad-tailed hummingbird, northern flicker, house wren,
American robin, warbling vireo, yellow-rumped warbler, junco, western
wood pewee, and lazuli bunting [39]. The following other species also
nest in mature quaking aspen communities [42]:

       canopy nesters - pewees, vireos, western tanager, Cassin's finch,
         least flycatcher
       ground nesters - hermit thrush, Townsend`s solitaire, dark-eyed junco,
         white-crowned and Lincoln`s sparrows, veery, ovenbird, nighthawk,
         Connecticut and mourning warblers
       shrub nesters - flycatchers (Empidonax spp.), rose-breasted and
         black-headed grosbeaks, chipping, clay-colored, and song sparrows,
         yellow and MacGillivray`s warblers, rufous-sided and
         green-sided towhees, black-billed cuckoo
       cavity nesters - chickadees, nuthatches, woodpeckers, owls,
         sapsuckers, hairy and downy woodpeckers

General cover value of quaking aspen has been rated as follows [48]:

                       CO       MT       ND       OR       UT       WY
Pronghorn             ----     ----     Poor     ----     Poor     Poor
Elk                   Fair     Good     ----     ----     Good     Good
Mule deer             Fair     Good     Poor     ----     Good     Good
White-tailed deer     Fair     Good     Fair     ----     ----     Good
Small mammals         ----     Good     ----     ----     Good     Good
Small nongame birds   Good     Good     Good     ----     Good     Good
Upland game birds     Poor     Good     Good     ----     Good     Good
Waterfowl             ----     ----     ----     ----     Poor     Poor

VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Aspens (Trepidae) are unique in their ability to stabilize soil and
watersheds. Fire-killed stands are promptly revegetated by root sprouts
(suckers). The trees produce abundant litter that contains more
nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, and calcium than leaf litter of most other
hardwoods. The litter decays rapidly, forming a nutrient-rich humus
that may amount to 25 tons per acre (oven-dry basis). The humus reduces
runoff and aids in percolation and recharge of ground water. Litter and
humus layers reduce evaporation from the soil surface. Compared to
conifers, more snow accumulates under quaking aspen and snowmelt begins
earlier in the spring. Soil under quaking aspen thaws faster and
infiltrates snow more rapidly than soil under conifers [23].

Wide adaptability of quaking aspen makes it well-suited for restoration
and rehabilitation projects on a wide range of sites. Seedlings
transplanted onto disturbed sites have shown good establishment [33].
Seedlings have some advantages over vegetative cuttings. In large-scale
greenhouse production, quaking aspen seedlings are more economical to
establish and grow [57]. Seedlings grow a taproot and secondary roots
quickly, while quaking aspen cuttings can be slow to establish an
adequate root system [145]. Also, genetic diversity is greater among
seedlings than cuttings [146]. Seed stored at 4 degrees Fahrenheit (-20
deg C) has retained viability for at least 2 years. Fung and Hamel [57]
and Schier and others [145] provide procedures for collecting and
processing quaking aspen seed.

The major advantage of using quaking aspen cuttings is that clones with
desirable traits can be selected as parent stock. Quaking aspen
vegetative cuttings are difficult to root, however [123,146]. Stem
cuttings are especially difficult to root unless taken from young
sprouts. Root cuttings taken from young sprouts are generally most
successful. Schier and others [146] provide information on growing
quaking aspen cuttings in the greenhouse.

Case examples - Riparian: In riparian and lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta) zones of Lost Canyon near Fresno, California, restoration was
needed after a hydroelectric plant pipe broke, scouring part of the
canyon. Quaking aspen seedlings showed 99.2 percent survival (or 357
live seedlings) and had a mean height of 10.6 inches (26.6 cm) 1 year
after transplant [33].

Strip-mined sites: Some old strip-mined sites in Pennsylvania, Ontario,
and elsewhere have not revegetated due to extreme acidity of the soil.
Quaking aspen is one of the first native tree species to volunteer on
these soils after application of lime [81,168].

Mine spoils: Quaking aspen transplants were successfully established on
phosphate mine spoils in southeastern Idaho that received only 18 inches
(450 mm) of annual precipitation [145].

OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Mountain slopes covered by quaking aspen provide high yields of
good-quality water. Quaking aspen intercepts less snow than conifers,
so snowpack is often greater under quaking aspen [44].

Well-stocked quaking aspen stands provide excellent watershed
protection. The trees, the shrub and herbaceous understories, and the
litter of quaking aspen stands provide nearly 100 percent soil cover.
Soil cover and the intermixture of herbaceous and woody roots protect
soil except during very intense rains [44].

Quaking aspen is valued for its aesthetic qualities at all times of the
year. The yellow, orange, and red foliage of autumn particularly
enhances recreational value of quaking aspen sites [85].

Quaking aspen is widely used in ornamental landscaping [85].

OTHER
It is somewhat unclear why some quaking aspen stands break up and die
while others remain stable. The age at which quaking aspen clones begin
to die probably has a genetic component. Site quality can also be a
major factor [143]. Is it well documented in the Great Lakes States
that environmental variables affect quaking aspen longevity [63,93].
Stands in this region may deteriorate* rapidly; more than half the trees
in a well-stocked stand may die in 6 years [63]. In Utah, however,
clone deterioration was found to occur over a number of generations of
sprouts [141]. Schier and Campbell [143] found that on the Wasatch
National Forest near Logan, Utah, concentrations of phosphorus and
percent silt were significantly lower on soils with deteriorating clones
than on soils with healthy clones. Ten deteriorating clones and ten
healthy clones were studied.

*Deteriorating stands are defined as those stands with a low density of
stems that are younger and smaller in size, and with poorer form and
higher crown:stem ratios, than healthy stands [143].

Cryer and Murray [36] speculated that both soil type and disturbance are
important in quaking aspen stability. As a quaking aspen stand matures,
a humus-rich (mollic) soil layer develops. Quaking aspen thrive for a
time, but without disturbance gradually begin to age and deteriorate.
With deterioration, the soil loses organic matter and thickness. With
loss of humus and litter, rapid percolation leaches the soil, which
becomes thinner, more acidic, and lower in nutrients. Acidic,
low-nutrient soils support conifers more readily than quaking aspen.
Disturbances such as burning or clearcutting tend to maintain quaking
aspen. If soil is already thin and acidic, however, clearcutting will
probably convert the site to conifers. Quaking aspen on such sites has
been observed to sprout, grow to about 3 feet (0.9 m) in height, and
begin to die. A deteriorating stand that is burned may be more likely
to revert to quaking aspen because burning increases soil pH and adds
organic carbon and nutrients to the soil. However, fire will probably
not rejuvenate the stand if quaking aspen biomass is so low that burning
does not appreciably raise soil pH and nutrient levels. Sucker vigor
will probably be low.

Range: There is increasing concern that in the West, poor quaking aspen
regeneration is due, at least in part, to wildlife overbrowsing young
sprouts [67]. Where browsing pressure is heavy, ungulates may remove
quaking aspen regeneration before it grows above browseline. To provide
for quaking aspen regeneration in such areas, enough quaking aspen must
be removed to create an unbrowsed surplus of new growth [122]. A few
areas of the West have such large elk populations that even after
large-scale wildfires, quaking aspen sprouts attained little height
growth because of intense browsing. In such areas, quaking aspen
sprouts probably require protection from browsing [90].

Promoting quaking aspen: Prescribed burning is one method of promoting
quaking aspen (see FIRE MANAGEMENT). When prescribed burning is not
desired or feasible, clearcutting or bulldozing is recommended [77,177].

Clearcutting often results in a sucker stand of 50,000 to 100,000 stems
per hectare [17,35,49]. A basal area of less than 4 trees/sq m/ha is
recommended to promote sprouting [87,122]. Partial cuttings seriously
inhibit sprouting because apical dominance is retained in standing
stems, and shade from standing stems reduces vigor of the few suckers
that do appear [49].

Clearcutting in southeastern boreal forest: Lavertu and others [98]
found that in balsam fir-northern white-cedar (Abies balsamea-Thuja
occidentalis) forest in Quebec, quaking aspen showed strong sprouting
response regardless of forest seral stage, number of quaking aspen
present before cutting, quaking aspen stem age, or quaking aspen root
density. After clearcutting on sites that had burned 46, 74, 143, 167,
and 230 years earlier, quaking aspen sprouted vigorously even on the
site that had not burned for 230 years, had only a single, living
quaking aspen stem, and the lowest quaking aspen root density of all
five site types. Initial sprouting densities were greater in younger
stands, but due to greater mortality of sprouts in younger stands,
differences in sprouting density between different-aged stands were not
significant 3 years after clearcutting.

Bulldozing: Carefully done, whole-tree bulldozing can stimulate quaking
aspen suckering [177,178]. Operations that cause deep cutting or
compaction of soil will reduce sprouting [177]. Shepperd [178] obtained
good quaking aspen regeneration by pushing over whole trees using a
rubber-tire skidder with the blade positioned above ground level. This
technique severed large roots to a distance of 3.3 to 5 feet (1-1.5 m)
from the stem. Five years after treatment, quaking aspen suckers
averaged 37,888 per hectare when slash was removed and 10,131 per
hectare with slash intact. In contrast, sites that were clearcut
averaged 17,544 stems per hectare (no slash) and 7,038 stems per hectare
(slash) [178].

Quaking aspen control: On some sites, it may be desirable to convert
quaking aspen to another vegetation type. Stand conversion may be
relatively easy on dry or poorly drained sites, or on sites were quaking
aspen is exposed to snow damage. Quaking aspen production is usually
low on such sites to begin with, and such stands are prone to breakup.
On other sites, it may not be possible to eliminate quaking aspen, but
quaking aspen can probably be reduced [49]. Very small clearcuts reduce
quaking aspen abundance because sprouting response is weak after such
treatment [114]. Girdling also reduces abundance; sprouting occurs
after girdling, but shade provided by standing dead stems increases
sprout mortality. Also, it is thought that girdling promotes decay of
the root system [147]. Use of glyphosate after cutting has been shown
to control quaking aspen regeneration for some time [122,123].

In Quebec, quaking aspen in a quaking aspen-paper birch stand
originating after a 1944 fire was partially controlled by removing
overtopping quaking aspen when the stand was 7 and 14 years of age.
Stocking varied as follows at postfire year 34 [96].

_______________________________________________________________________________
         Treatment            |                   Stocking
______________________________|________________________________________________
control (no treatment)        | 5% paper birch; 90% aspen; 5% mixed hardwoods
Aug. 1951 cut & Nov. 1958 cut | 90% paper birch; 10% aspen
Nov. 1951 cut & Nov. 1958 cut | 44% paper birch; 41% aspen; 15% mixed hardwoods
Nov. 1951 cut & May 1959      |
herbicide (injection in     | 32% paper birch; 63% aspen; 5% mixed hardwoods
____aspen only)_______________|________________________________________________

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Associated Forest Cover

provided by Silvics of North America

Quaking aspen grows with a large number of trees and shrubs over its extensive range. It is a major component of three forest cover types (72), Aspen (Eastern Forest) (Society of American Foresters Type 16), Aspen (Western Forest) (Type 217), and White Spruce-Aspen (Type 251). It is a minor component of 35 other types and an occasional to rare component in 3 types.

Shrub species commonly associated with quaking aspen in the eastern part of its range include beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta), American hazel (C. americana), mountain maple (Acer spicatum), speckled alder (Alnus rugosa), American green alder (A. crispa), dwarf bush -honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera), raspberries and blackberries (Rubus spp.), and various species of gooseberry (Ribes) and willow (Salix). Additional species occurring with quaking aspen in the prairie provinces include: snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.), highbush cranberry (Viburnum edule), limber honeysuckle (Lonicera dioica), red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera), western serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), Bebb willow (Salix bebbiana), and several species of rose (Rosa). The latter two also occur in Alaska plus such additional species as Scouler willow (Salix scouleriana), bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis), mountain cranberry (Vaccinium vitisidaea), and highbush cranberry. In the Rocky Mountains, shrubs commonly occurring with quaking aspen include mountain snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus), western serviceberry, chokecherry, common juniper (Juniperus communis), creeping hollygrape (Berberis repens), woods rose (Rosa woodsii), myrtle pachistima (Pachistima myrsinites), redberry elder (Sambucus pubens), and a number of Ribes (69,70,72,78,85,91).

Herbs characteristic of quaking aspen stands in the east include largeleaf aster (Aster macrophyllus), wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), Canada beadruby (Maianthemum canadense), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), yellow beadlily (Clintonia borealis), roughleaf ricegrass (Oryzopsis asperifolia), sweetscented bedstraw (Galium triflorum), sweetfern (Comptonia perigrina), lady fern (Athyrium filix-femina), bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), and several species of sedges (Carex spp.) and goldenrods (Solidago spp.). In the West, the herbaceous component is too rich and diverse to describe. Forbs dominate most sites, and grasses and sedges dominate others (72).

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copyright: USDA, Forest Service

author: D. A. Perala

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Climate

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Climatic conditions vary greatly over the range of the species, especially winter minimum temperatures and annual precipitation. The known widest range in temperatures aspen has endured in the conterminous United States is in Montana, where January lows of -57° C (-70° F) and summer highs of 41° C (105° F) have been recorded. In Alaska and northwest Canada, part of the range lies within the permafrost zone, but quaking aspen grows only on the warmest sites free of permafrost (28,91).

At the eastern end of the range, in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, the climate is mild, humid, and snowfall is extremely heavy, 300 cm (120 in) or more per year. Some representative climates for the northern and eastern limits of quaking aspen as well as for the warmer parts of its eastern range are as follows (78):

Interior Alaska Gander, NF Ft. Wayne, IN Temperature, C: Minimum -61° -34° -31° January average -30° -7° -3° Maximum 38° 32° 41° July average 16° 16° 23° Precipitation, mm: Total 180 1020 860 Growing season 80 250 330 Frost-free days 81 160 176 Temperature, F: Minimum -78° -29° -24° January average -22° 19° 27° Maximum 100° 90° 106° July average 61° 61° 73° Precipitation, in: Total 7 40 34 Growing season 3 10 13 Frost-free days 81 160 176 In the central Rocky Mountains, where altitude plays an important role in the distribution of aspen, the lower limit of its occurrence coincides roughly with a mean annual temperature of 7° C (45° F). In Colorado and southern Wyoming, quaking aspen grows in a narrow elevational belt of 2100 to 3350 m (6,900 to 11,000 ft). Average annual precipitation in this belt ranges from 410 to 1020 mm (16 to 40 in). The southern limit of the range of aspen in the Eastern United States is roughly delineated by the 24° C (75° F) mean July temperature isotherm. In Canada the mean annual degree-day sum of 700° C (1260° F) with a threshold temperature 5.6° C (42° F) coincides closely with the northern limit of the species (51,69, 70,78,80).

Quaking aspen occurs where annual precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. It is abundant in interior Alaska where annual precipitation is only about 180 mm (7 in) because evapotranspiration is limited by cool summer temperatures. In the interior west the 2.5 cm (I in) average annual surface water runoff isopleth is more coincident with the range of aspen than is any isotherm. This isopleth also is coincident with the southern limit of aspen in the prairie provinces of Canada eastward to northwestern Minnesota and south to Iowa where high summer temperatures limit growth and longevity. In summary, the range of quaking aspen is limited first to areas of water surplus and then to minimum or maximum growing season temperatures (33,71,91).

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Damaging Agents

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Numerous factors other than competition injure or kill young stands (25,40). Young trees are sometimes killed by bark-eating mammals, such as meadow mice and snowshoe hares, which may girdle the stem at or near the ground line. Also, larger animals, such as mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, and moose, frequently seriously damage reproduction by browsing and by rubbing their antlers against the stems. Elk and moose can also damage pole- and saw log-size trees by "barking" them with their incisors. Such injuries often favor secondary attack by insects or pathogens. Heavy use by overwintering big game animals can greatly reduce the number of aspen trees in localized areas. Cattle and sheep browsing is a serious problem in many areas of the Rockies because livestock are allowed to range through recent aspen clearcuts. Mature aspen stands adjacent to livestock concentrations (water holes, salt blocks, isolated stands in large open areas) often have root damage, are declining, and have few if any suckers present. Excessive use and vandalism by recreationists has caused aspen to deteriorate in many campsites (41,70).

Beaver feed on the young tender bark and shoots of aspen and often cut down large numbers of trees near their colonies. A high population of porcupines can greatly damage tree crowns both directly by feeding, and indirectly by increasing the trees' susceptibility to attack by insects and diseases.

The red-breasted and yellow-bellied sapsuckers may seriously sear trees with drill holes. Minor damage is caused by such woodland birds as the ruffed grouse and the sharp-tailed grouse, which feed on the buds of quaking aspen; ruffed grouse also feed on the leaves during the summer months (78).

Aspen is susceptible to a large number of diseases (28,39,41,81,82). Shoot blight of some aspen caused by Venturia macularis is periodically severe. Angular black spots appear on the leaves, enlarging until the leaf dies. If the infection occurs at the top of the tree, the entire new shoot may be infected, blackened, killed, and bent to form a "shepherd's crook." This disease is common in young stands. A similar leaf disease in Wisconsin is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.

Two or more species of Ciborinia cause a leaf spot on trees of all ages. When the disease is severe, small trees may be killed, but older ones rarely die. Marssonina populi causes a leaf spot and shoot blight that is especially prevalent and damaging in the western states. It is responsible for occasional severe defoliation. Severe, repeated infection can cause mortality, although susceptibility to this disease varies greatly among clones. Another leaf spot of aspen is caused by Septoria musiva.

Several leaf rust fungi of the genus Melampsora infect aspen. M. medusae is common east of the Rocky Mountains. M. abietis-canadensis occurs throughout the range of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and M. albertensis in the West. All can discolor and kill aspen leaf tissue and cause premature autumn leaf drop, but their damage is not serious.

Powdery mildew, Erysiphe cichoracearum in the West and the widespread Uncinula salicis can be conspicuous on aspen leaves but probably do little damage.

Recently, viruses have been detected in a few quaking aspen clones. Once trees in the clone are infected, regeneration by suckering maintains the infection, which is then impossible to eliminate except by artificially culturing virus-free tissue. The full extent and seriousness of viruses in aspen is unknown but decline of some clones has been attributed to them in both the East and the West.

Stain and decay have the greatest direct impact of the many stem pathogens on wood production. The role of microorganisms frequently associated with discoloration is poorly understood because staining also develops in their absence. Bacteria and yeast organisms are commonly associated with "wetwood," a water-soaked condition of live trees that leads to wood collapse during lumber drying.

A number of different bacteria and fungi are found in aspen tissue, apparently interacting to follow one another successionally, with bacteria appearing first. Phellinus tremulae causes a white rot of the heartwood at first but may eventually invade the entire stem. It causes the greatest volume of aspen decay and is so prevalent it conceals rot caused by other fungi. Sporophores (fruiting bodies) are the most reliable external indicator of decay. They provide a means to estimate present and future decay. Resistance to this fungus is strongly genetically controlled. Incidence and extent of infection increases with tree age or size but is not strongly related to site (76).

Peniophora polygonia is the second most important trunk rot fungus in the West and in Alaska, but it causes little actual cull. Libertella spp. is also an important trunk rot fungus in the West. Other less important trunk rot fungi found on aspen include Radulodon caesearius, Peniophora polygonia, P. rufa, and Pholiota adiposa.

More fungi species cause butt and root rots than trunk rots-as much as one-third of the decay volume in Colorado. Collybia velutipes is found in Alaska and causes the greatest amount of butt cull in the West. Ganoderma applanatum may be as important because it also decays large roots, which leads to windthrow. Less important butt rot fungi include Pholiota squarrosa, Gymnopilus spectabilis, Peniophora polygonia, and Armillaria mellea. The latter is primarily a root rot which can infect a high proportion of the trees (74). Other locally important root rots in the West include Phialophora spp. and Coprinus atramentarius.

Stem cankers are common diseases of aspen that have a great impact on the aspen resource. Depending on the causal fungus, cankers can kill a tree within a few years or persist for decades. Hypoxylon canker caused by Hypoxylon mammatum is probably the most serious aspen disease east of the Rockies, killing 1 to 2 percent of the aspen annually. It is not an important disease in the West, nor has it been found in Alaska. The infection mode of Hypoxylon is poorly understood but seems to be related to ascospore germination inhibitors in bark. Most canker infections seem to originate in young branches with scars or galls formed by twig-boring insects (4). Once infected, the host bark tissue is rapidly invaded and the fungus girdles and kills the tree in a few years (5).

Ceratocystis canker is a target-shaped canker caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata, C. moniliformis, C. piceae, C. pluriannulata, C. ambrosia, C. cana, C. serpens, C. crassivaginata, C. populina, C. tremuloaurea, and C. alba. This canker is found throughout the range of aspen, with C. fimbriata the most common causal pathogen. These cankers seldom kill aspens but can reduce usable volume of the butt log. Infection is primarily through trunk wounds and insects are the primary vectors.

Sooty-bark canker of aspen is caused by Phibalis pruinosa and is common and a major cause of mortality in Alaska and the West. The fungus infects trunk wounds and spreads rapidly, killing trees of all sizes. The fungus has been found only as an innocuous bark saprophyte on quaking aspen in the East.

Cytospora canker is caused by Cytospora chrysosperma, a normal inhabitant of aspen bark. The fungus is not considered a primary pathogen and causes cankers, lesions, or bark necrosis only after the host tree has been stressed, such as by drought, fire, frost, suppression, or leaf diseases. The disease is most serious on young trees and is found throughout the range of aspen.

Dothichiza canker, caused by Dothichiza populea, occurs in the eastern range of aspen. It is an endemic disease of young or weakened trees and is not found in vigorous stands.

In Ontario, a canker caused by Neofabraea populi has been found on young aspen. Few trees have been killed by it, however, and the disease is not known in the United States.

Cryptosphaeria populina cause a long, narrow, vertical canker that may spiral around an aspen trunk for 1 to 6 in (3 to 20 ft) or more. It is common in the West as far north as Alaska. Trees with large cankers have extensive trunk rot and are frequently broken by wind.

Aspen is susceptible to three types of rough-bark which are caused by the fungi Diplodia tumefaciens, Rhytidiella baranyayi, and Cucurbitaria staphula. Rough, corky bark outgrowths persist for many years but do little harm.

Quaking aspen hosts a wide variety of insects (28,81). One Canadian survey recorded more than 300 species, but only a few are known to severely damage trees. They may be grouped into defoliators, borers, and sucking insects.

Defoliators of aspen belong primarily to the orders Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. The forest tent caterpillar (Malacasoma disstria) and the western tent caterpillar (M. californicum) have defoliated aspens over areas as large as 259 000 km² (100,000 mi²). Outbreaks usually persist for 2 to 3 years and may collapse as quickly as they begin (88). Aspen growth losses during defoliation have been as high as 90 percent and may take as long as 3 or 4 years for total growth recovery. Some trees never recover and die as much as 20 to 80 percent of them on poor sites (90). On good sites mortality may be restricted to suppressed trees (59).

The large aspen tortrix (Choristoneura conflictana) is found throughout the range of aspen. It has defoliated trees over an area as large as 25 900 km² (10,000 mi²) in Canada and Alaska. Caterpillars predominantly infest the leaves of early flushing clones (89). Outbreaks normally collapse in 2 or 3 years and, although aspen growth is reduced, few trees are killed.

In the East, aspen is a favored host for the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) and the satin moth (Leucoma salicis) (78).

A great number of leaf tiers defoliate aspen. Sciaphila duplex is one that is often associated with the large aspen tortrix and has been a major pest in Utah. Other Lepidopterous defoliators of aspen include the Bruce spanworm, Operophtera bruceata, and Lobophora nivigerata.

Three species of leaf-rolling sawflies of the genus Pontania sometimes erupt in local outbreaks in the Lake States. Anacampsis niveopulvella is a Lepidopterous leaf roller that causes local damage in the West. Sawflies of the Platycampus genus chew holes in leaves.

The more common leaf miners of aspen are aspen leaf miner (Phyllocnistis populiella), the aspen blotch miners (Phyllonorycter tremuloidiella and Lithocolletis salicifoliella), and a leaf-mining sawfly (Messa populifoliella).

Defoliating beetles include the aspen leaf beetle (Chrysomela crotchi), the cottonwood leaf beetle (C. scripta), the American aspen beetle (Gonioctena americana), and the gray willow leaf beetle (Pyrrhalta decora). All have similar feeding habits; the larvae skeletonize lower surfaces of leaves, and adults feed on whole leaves.

Wood-boring insects that attack aspen are primarily beetles of the Cerambycidae (round-headed borers or long-horned beetles) and Buprestidae (flatheaded borers or metallic beetles). The poplar borer (Soperda calcarata) is the most damaging. The larvae tunnel in the bole, weakening and degrading the wood. Breakage by wind increases and the tunnels serve as infection courts for wood-rotting fungi. S. moesta is a smaller related borer that attacks small suckers and aspen twigs. It is important only in the West. Xylotrechus obliteratus has killed large areas of aspen in the West above 2130 in (7,000 ft).

The root-boring saperda (Saperda calcarata) feeds on phloem and outer sapwood near the base of young aspen suckers. Oviposition incisions of the poplar gall saperda (S. inornata) frequently cause globose galls to form on the stems of young suckers and on small branches of larger trees. These oviposition wounds can serve as infection sites for Hypoxylon that can then grow from a branch gall down into the bole of the tree causing a canker (4). The poplar branch borer (Oberea schaumi) attacks larger suckers and tree limbs. Damage by all these insects can lead to stem breakage. Site quality is not an important variable, and maintaining high stocking density of vigorous suckers is the best practice to minimize loss.

Two flatheaded borers, the bronze poplar borer (Agrilus liragus) and the aspen root girdler (A. horni), bore galleries that disrupt nutrient and water movement. The former attacks sucker stems and makes zig-zag galleries; the latter girdles the sucker with a spiral gallery from the lower trunk to the roots and back. A. anxius also girdles and kills aspen twigs in the West.

Some other Buprestids attacking aspen in the East are the flatheaded apple tree borer (Chrysobothris femorata), the Pacific flatheaded borer (C. mali), and the flatheaded aspen borers (Dicerca tenebrica, D. divaricata, and Poecilonota cyanipes). The first two and the latter are also reported in the West, along with the aspen ambrosia beetle (Typodendron retusum). None of these cause serious injury in well-managed stands.

A widespread weevil, the poplar and willow borer, Cryptorhynchus lapathi, can riddle aspen stems with galleries, especially planted trees.

A clear-wing moth of the genus Aegeria, and willow shoot sawfly (Janus abbreviatus) are examples of borers from nonbeetle families.

In the West, the fungus Ceratocystis fimbriata is carried by Epurea spp., Nudobius spp., and Rhisophagus spp. (28).

Sucking insects are represented mainly by aphids and leafhoppers. The poplar vagabond aphid (Mordvilkoja vagabunda) causes a peculiar curled and twisted gall of leaves as large as 5 cm (2 in) in diameter at the tip of twigs. Poplar petiole gall and twig gall aphids of the genus Pernphigus produce swellings on leaf petioles. Increased forking of aspen suckers may be caused by high populations of the speckled poplar aphid (Chaitophorus populicola) and the spotted poplar aphid (Aphis maculatae). They are commonly found on expanding aspen sucker leaves (35,81).

The genera Idiocerus, Oncomtopia, Macropsis, Oncopsis, and Agallia have several species of leafhoppers that cause leaf browning and slitlike ruptures in the bark of twigs. Only Idiocerus spp. have been found in the West. Several species of scale insects such as the oystershell scale (Lepidosaphes u1mi) are found on aspen but do little damage to healthy trees. Cutworms (moth family Noctuidae larvae) sometimes can cut a large number of succulent new suckers at the ground line. Black carpenter ants (Camponotus pennsylvanicus) frequently use and extend the tunneling made by the poplar borer, causing further damage (35,78).

Aspen is highly susceptible to fire damage. Fires may kill trees outright or cause basal scars that serve as avenues of entrance for wood-rotting fungi. Intense fires can kill or injure surface roots and thereby reduce sucker regeneration (19,56,78).

Early spring frosts may kill new leaves and shoots and, when especially severe, some of the previous year's shoots. Overwinter freezing can cause frost cracks. Strong wind can uproot or break mature aspen and even moderate wind can crack the bole of trees with lopsided crowns. Hail can bruise the bark of young aspen and, in severe storms, kill entire sapling stands. Aspen suffers little from ice storms or heavy wet snow, except when in leaf. Snow creep on steep slopes can bend or break aspen suckers as tall as 1.2 in (4 ft) (28).

Aspen suddenly exposed to full sunlight may suffer sunscald. Pole-size trees are more susceptible than saplings (19,58).

Aspen growth and vigor suffer from drought (79), and drought- stressed trees become predisposed to secondary agents such as insects and disease. Mechanical injuries inflicted on aspen bark by thoughtless recreationists can lead to infection by canker disease and eventual death in as few as 10 to 20 years.

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Flowering and Fruiting

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Quaking aspen is primarily dioecious. The pendulous flower catkins, 3.8 to 6.4 cm (1.5 to 2.5 in) long, generally appear in April or May (mid-March to April in New England, May to June in central Rockies) before the leaves expand (28,66,78,91). Local clonal variation provides early and late flowering clones of each sex in most stands. In addition, certain flowers bloom later than others, usually those on the distal end of a given catkin or small catkins on spurlike shoots (13). Maximum air temperatures above 12° C (54° F) for a period of about 6 days appear to be the principal factor governing timing of flowering. Flowers are pollinated by wind. The fruiting catkins are about 10 cm (4 in) long when mature, usually in May or June-about 4 to 6 weeks after flowering. Each catkin may bear several dozen one-celled capsules, light green, each nearly 6 min (0.25 in) long. Each capsule contains about 10 small brown seeds, each of which is surrounded by tufts of long, white silky hairs. Although the flowers are typically unisexual, 10 to 20 percent of the predominantly female trees and 4 to 5 percent of the predominantly male trees bear perfect flowers. Trees in a given clone, therefore, are usually either all male or all female. Some studies in the eastern United States found male-to-female ratios of about 3 to 1 in natural populations; others have reported no deviation from an expected 1-to-1 ratio (66,78). In the Colorado Rockies, male clones were more common at high elevations and female clones were more common at low elevations. Furthermore, female clones had faster radial growth than male clones, especially at lower elevations. This runs counter to the theory that the high metabolic cost of sexual reproduction for females is compensated for by reduced vegetative growth (36).

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Genetics

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The vegetative cells of aspen, as well as those of nearly all aspen hybrids, contain 19 pairs of chromosomes. A number of triploid aspen (with three sets of chromosomes rather than the normal two) have been located in Utah, the Lake States, and Colorado. A few albino aspen seedlings have been observed, as have two albino aspen suckers, which were thought to result from a somatic mutation in aspen root tissue (30,37,78).

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Growth and Yield

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Quaking aspen is a small- to medium-sized, fast-growing, and short-lived tree. Under the best of conditions, however, it may attain 36.5 in (120 ft) in height and 137 cm (54 in) in d.b.h. The current national champion is 114 cm (45 in) d.b.h. and 26 in (86 ft) tall near Fort Klamath, OR. More typically, mature stands may range from 20 to 25 in (66 to 82 ft) tall and average 18 to 30 cm (7 to 12 in) d.b.h. A few vigorous trees attain a maximum age of about 200 years (oldest recorded is 226 years) in Alaska and the Rocky Mountain region (28,42). Although individual ramets of a clone may be short lived, the clone may be thousands of years old (46) and longer lived than the oldest giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum).

The tallest quaking aspen are found in a belt bordering the midcontinental prairie region at about latitude 55° N., and in north-central Minnesota, northern Michigan, and in the Southwest. Few quaking aspen exceed 26 or 27 in (85 to 90 ft) in Alaska (38).

Growth and decay are both generally slower in Alaska and the West than in the East, hence pathological rotations are longer-80 to 90 years in Utah and 110 to 120 years for Colorado and Wyoming. In northern Minnesota, the pathological rotation is about 55 to 60 years and even shorter in southern Wisconsin and Michigan (35,69,70).

Now and in the foreseeable future, most aspen will be extensively managed (complete clearing for site preparation, no thinning) for fiberboard, pulpwood, flakeboard, and some sawtimber. Aspen is harvested either as whole-tree chips or as bolewood to a nominal top size for pulpwood or sawtimber. Some of the very best stands can be thinned to increase the production of large bolts (57,58).

Site quality varies regionally, being highest in the Lake States, followed by Alaska and the West. Biomass mean annual increment on the better sites in the Lake States and Canada culminates at about age 30 and at 4.4 to 4.8 mg/ha (2-2.2 tons/acre) dry weight (16,60). Mature stands in Newfoundland typically carry 64 m²/ha (280 ft²/acre) basal area. This amounts to 376 mg/ha (167 tons/acre) at age 90 years, or 4.2 mg/ha/yr (1.9 tons/acre/year) (54). However, exceptionally good growth of quaking aspen is possible in Arizona and in Colorado and southern Wyoming (44,70). A natural triploid clone in Minnesota produced an annual yield of 14.6 m³/ha (208 ft³/acre) of bolewood over 38 years (59).

Aspen responds to intensive management. Production by thinned stands for a 50-year rotation, including thinnings removed at ages 10, 20, and 30, is about 511 m³/ha (7,300 ft³/acre), or 10.2 m³/ha (146 ft³/acre) per year. This is about 42 percent greater than for similar, but unthinned, stands (58). Quaking aspen growth can be further increased by fertilization and irrigation (24,26,29,59,84). Sub-optimal fiber yield and the threat of Armillaria mellea root rot limit the practicality of rotations shorter than 1520 years (77).

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Reaction to Competition

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In both the eastern and western parts of its range, quaking aspen is classed as very intolerant of shade, a characteristic it retains throughout its life. Natural pruning is excellent, and long, clean stems are usually produced when side shade is present. However, this is a clonally variable characteristic and self-pruned and unpruned clones exist side by side in some stands (69,78). The intolerance of aspen to shade dictates an even-aged silvicultural system, that is, clearcutting, for regenerating fully stocked sucker stands and maximizing growth (19,57,75),

The tree has a pronounced ability to express dominance, and overstocking to stagnation of growth is extremely rare.

Quaking aspen is an aggressive pioneer. It readily colonizes burns and can hold invaded land even though subjected to fires at intervals as short as 3 years. In the northeastern United States, it is an old-field type, and in Canada it invades grassland if fire is excluded. In the Central Rocky Mountains, it constitutes the typical fire climax at the lower elevations of the subalpine forest. The extensive stands of aspen in that area are usually attributed to repeated wildfires, and aspen is generally regarded as a successional species able to dominate a site until replaced by less fire-enduring but more shade-tolerant conifers, a process that may take only a single aspen generation or as long as 1,000 years of fire exclusion. Aspen is considered a permanent type on some sites in the intermountain region of Utah, Nevada, and southern Idaho, but conifers would invade the type if seed trees were available.

The uneven-aged character of some western aspen stands suggests that under certain conditions aspen is self-perpetuating without major disturbance. These stands are relatively stable and can be considered de facto climax. Seral and stable aspen stands seem to be associated with certain indicator species (28,78,82).

In its eastern range, aspen in the absence of disturbance is regarded as transient. Successional patterns are determined by soil water regime (61). Pure aspen stands gradually deteriorate to a "shrubwood" dominated by the shrub component of the stand and with only a few scattered aspen suckers. If intolerant associates are present, they will outlive the aspen and eventually dominate but in turn will be replaced again by the shrubwood type. If tolerant hardwoods or balsam fir (Abies balsamea) are associated with aspen, they will eventually dominate by their longevity and ability to regenerate in their own shade (81).

The deterioration of aspen stands begins earliest at the southern limits of its eastern range and seems to be related to summer temperatures. Deterioration begins when crowns in old stands can no longer grow fast enough to fill the voids in the canopy left by dying trees. Increased breakage accelerates the deterioration process, which may be completed in as few as 3 or 4 years (81). Deterioration is a much slower process in the West, where aspen often is replaced by conifers. Dry sites may revert to rangeland dominated by shrubs, forbs, and grasses. Sometimes suckers appear in a deteriorating stand and ultimately an all-age climax aspen forest develops (28).

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Rooting Habit

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Seedlings initially have a short taproot, but a heart root system develops on deep, well-drained soils. Clonal ramets have a flat root system when young but again will develop a heart system on deep, well-drained soils. If rooting depth is restricted, a flat root system develops regardless of regeneration origin (28,59).

The shallow and extensive laterals have cordlike branch roots that undulate and meander for great distances without tapering. These roots are the main producers of suckers, particularly when they are close to the soil surface. Roots tend to follow soil surface irregularities and may even grow into decaying stumps or logs. The fine feeding roots are found at all levels down to 0.6 to 0.9 in (2 to 3 ft) except in restrictive horizons. Sinker roots occur as frequently as every meter or so on the lateral roots. They may descend to depths of 3 in (10 ft) or more where they end in a dense fan-shaped fine root mass. Sinkers are capable of penetrating strongly massive soil horizons or cracks in bedrock and often use vacated root channels (28,78).

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Seed Production and Dissemination

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Good seed crops are produced every 4 or 5 years, with light crops in most intervening years. Some open-grown clones may produce seeds annually, beginning at age 2 or 3. The minimum age for large seed crops is 10 to 20; the optimum is 50 to 70. One 23-year-old quaking aspen produced an estimated 1.6 million seeds (51,59,78). Seeds are very light, 5,500 to 8,000 clean seeds per gram (156,000 to 250,000/oz).

Seeds begin to be dispersed within a few days after they ripen and seed dispersal may last from 3 to 5 weeks. The seeds, buoyed by the long silky hairs, can be carried for many kilometers by air currents. Water also serves as a dispersal agent (78,91).

The viability of fresh fertile seeds is high (usually greater than 95 percent) but normally of short duration. Under favorable conditions viability lasts only 2 to 4 weeks after maturity and may be much less under unfavorable conditions. When air dried and stored in polyethylene bags at -10° C (14° F), seed retains high viability for at least I year. Seedlings are sturdiest when germinated at 5° to 29° C (41° to 84° F) and grown at about 20° C (68° F). Ripe quaking aspen seeds are not dormant, and germination occurs within a day or two after dispersal if a suitably moist seedbed is reached. Because germination declines rapidly after water potential exceeds -4 bars (-.4 MPa), a water-saturated seedbed is critical. Seeds germinate even when totally submerged in water or in the absence of light (32,47,50,66,78,92).

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Seedling Development

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Germination is epigeal. The primary root of a seedling grows very slowly for several days, and during this critical period the young plant depends upon a brush of long delicate hairs to perform the absorptive functions and anchor the seedling to the seedbed. Exposed mineral soils are the best seedbeds and litter the poorest seedbeds (28,51,60,78).

During the first year seedlings may attain a height of 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in) and develop a 20- to 25-cm (8- to 10-in) long taproot and from 30- to 40-cm (12 to 16-in) long laterals. During the second and third years, wide-spreading lateral roots are developed, reaching lengths of 2 m (6 ft) or more in the second year. Quaking aspen roots form ectomycorrhizae if suitable inoculum is present (28,78,86).

Despite the abundance of aspen seed and high germinative capacity, few aspen seedlings survive in nature because of the short period of seed viability, unfavorable moisture during seed dispersal, high soil surface temperatures, fungi, adverse diurnal temperature fluctuations during initial seedling growth, and the unfavorable chemical balance of some seedbeds (51,52).

Height growth of the young trees is rapid for about the first 20 years and slows thereafter. During the first several years, natural seedlings grow faster than planted seedlings but not as fast as suckers. High mortality characterizes young quaking aspen stands regardless of origin. In both seedling and sucker stands natural thinning is rapid, and trees that fall below the canopy stop growing and die within a few years (78,93).

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Special Uses

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Aspen provides habitat for a wide variety of wildlife needing young forests, including hare, black bear, deer, elk, ruffed grouse, woodcock, and a number of smaller birds and animals. Ruffed grouse use all age classes of aspen-sapling stands for brooding, pole stands for overwintering and breeding, and older stands for nesting cover and winter food (53,55,67,68).

Aspen forests allow more water or ground water recharge and streamflow than do conifer forests. This is primarily due to lower seasonal water losses to interception and transpiration by aspen compared to conifers (34). Clearcutting the aspen type may increase streamflow by as much as 60 percent during the first year. Subsequently, water yields gradually decline to preharvest levels and stabilize when maximum leaf area is attained at about age 10 to 25 (53).

The aspen type is esthetically appealing. The light bark and autumn colors are a pleasing contrast to dark conifers. In the West in particular, the type is used by recreationists during all seasons of the year.

Aspen stands produce abundant forage-as much as 1100 to 2800 kg/ha (1,000 to 2,500 lb/acre) in the Rockies annually, or three to six times more than typical conifer stands. These amounts are comparable to forage production on some grasslands. Although the type is sought after for summer sheep and cattle range in the West, its use for grazing in the East is much more limited (28).

Aspen stands, because of low fuel accumulations, are low in flammability and make excellent firebreaks. Violent crown fires in conifers commonly drop to the ground and sometimes are even extinguished when they reach an aspen stand (28).

Whole-tree aspen chips can be processed into nutritious animal feed ("Muka") or biomass fuels (82). Aspen could be grown for such purposes in dense sucker stands on biological rotations of 26 to 30 years (16).

Wood products from aspen include pulp, flakeboard, particleboard, lumber, studs, veneer, plywood, excelsior, shingles, novelty items, and wood flour. Aspen makes particularly good sauna benches and playground structures because the wood surface does not splinter.

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Vegetative Reproduction

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The aggregation of stems (ramets) produced asexually from a single sexually produced individual (the genet) is termed a clone. In aspen a clone is formed from the root system of the seedling genet following an event (cutting, fire) that destroys the genet (9).

Quaking aspen seedlings at 1 year of age are already capable of reproducing by root sprouts (suckers), and mature stands reproduce vigorously by this means (19,43). Root collar sprouts and stump sprouts are produced only occasionally by mature trees but saplings commonly produce them (77). Aspen clones vary widely in many characteristics, even over a small area. Members of a clone are indistinguishable but can be distinguished from those of a neighboring clone by electrophoresis and often by a variety of traits such as leaf shape and size, bark character, branching habit, resistance to disease and air pollution, sex, time of flushing, and autumn leaf color (9,10,11,17,22,23,57,87). Clones typically have many ramets over an area up to a few tenths of a hectare in stands east of the Rocky Mountains (45,76). In the Rockies, clones tend to be much larger-one Utah clone covered 43.3 ha (107 acres) and contained an estimated 47,000 ramets. Clone size in an aspen stand is primarily a function of clone age, number of seedlings initially established, and the frequency and degree of disturbance since seedling establishment (46).

The root suckers are produced from meristems on the shallow, cordlike lateral roots within 2 to 10 cm (1 to 4 in) of the soil surface (28,81). In response to clone disturbance, the meristems may develop into buds and then elongate into shoots. Frequently, however, they remain in the primordial stage until stimulated to develop further. These preexisting primordia are visible as small bumps when cork is peeled off an aspen root (63).

The development of suckers on aspen roots is suppressed by apical dominance exerted by auxin transported from growing shoots, while cytokinins, hormones synthesized in root tips, apparently initiate adventitious shoot development. When an aspen is cut, cytokinins accumulate in the roots, the supply of inhibitory auxins is eliminated, and suckers are initiated. If aspen is girdled, the downward transport of auxin again is stopped, but upward translocation of cytokinins via the xylem is unimpeded. Cytokinins in this case do not accumulate in the roots, with consequently less sucker production. Thus high cytokinin-to-auxin ratios favor shoot initiation while low ratios inhibit it. A gibberellic-acid-like growth regulator also stimulates shoot elongation after sucker initiation.

Carbohydrate reserves supply the energy needed by elongating suckers until they emerge at the soil surface to carry on their own photosynthesis. Therefore, the density of regeneration varies according to the level of these reserves. However, the number of suckers initiated by aspen roots is independent of variation in carbohydrate levels. Apical dominance by elongating suckers further limits the total amount of regeneration. Carbohydrates can be exhausted by grazing, repeated cropping or killing of sucker stands, or insect defoliation (63,77,82).

Soil temperature is the most critical environmental factor affecting suckering. Initiation and development of suckers is optimum at about 23° C (74° F). High temperatures tend to degrade auxin and promote cytokinin production, which may account in part for the aspen invasion of grassland without apparent clone disturbance (51,82).

Excess soil moisture (impeded aeration) or severe drought inhibit sucker production (25,57,82).

Light is not needed for sucker initiation but is essential for secondary growth (78). Large clonal. differences in ability to produce suckers may be due to differences in growth regulators, carbohydrate reserves, and developmental stages of shoot primordia (63). Some clones in the interior West are unevenaged, suggesting weak apical control or high concentration of growth-promoting hormones so that they sucker at the least disturbance (69,82).

Suckers are initially sustained by the root system of the parent tree, but they may form as much as 4.7 in (15.5 ft) of new main roots in 10 weeks. In contrast, suckers of some Utah clones produce only weak adventitious roots and depend on the distal parent root for sustenance. The parent root usually thickens at the point of sucker origin distal to the parent tree. This indicates that translocation of food produced by the sucker is toward the growing tip of the parent root, which usually becomes part of the new root system (28,51,78,81). These connections readily conduct water and solutes from tree to tree (27). True root grafts, in contrast, are rare in aspen.

Suckers from the roots of badly decayed trees are not infected by the parent stump. Heart rot usually terminates in the base of the stump. Deteriorating clones, however, produce few suckers.

In general, sucker regeneration is proportional to the degree of cutting, with most suckers arising after a complete clearcut (43,57,64,65,75,78). Typically, from 25,000 to 75,000 suckers per hectare (10,000 to 30,000/acre) are regenerated in Alaska and the Great Lakes region and about half as many in the Rockies (28,91).

Light burning on heavily cut areas increases the number of suckers and stimulates their initial growth. However, hot slash fires diminish sucker vigor. Repeated burning increases stand density because it stimulates sucker numbers and prepares mineral soil seedbeds for seedling establishment; however, it reduces stand growth (6,19,28,56,64,78). Surface fires in established aspen stands are not common because of aspen's inherently low flammability. When they do occur, fire wounds and loss of shallow feeder roots substantially reduce aspen productivity. Fire is a useful tool, however, to stimulate regeneration and to reduce competition if clearcutting is not practiced. It is especially valuable for regenerating deteriorated stands and for maintaining wildlife habitat (21,57).

Disking stimulates suckering, but sucker growth and survival are usually diminished because of injury to their sustaining parent roots. Rows of suckers often appear along furrows prepared for planting conifers.

Herbicides have been used to kill residual trees and to increase suckering without affecting sucker growth or vigor (19,57,78).

Dormant season cutting generally produces vigorous suckers the next growing season. Summer cutting produces a sparse stand initially, but the number of suckers after 2 years is usually the same regardless of cutting season (15). Suckering sometimes fails inexplicably after hay-vesting aspen on fine-textured soils during the growing season (59).

The number of suckers following cutting increases as stocking density of the parent stand increases up to full site utilization. The effect of age and site index on aspen suckering is not clear (35,81).

Age of wood is the most important factor in rooting quaking aspen cuttings. With rare exceptions, the species roots poorly from woody stem cuttings, even when treated with indolebutyric acid (IBA). However, newly initiated shoots can usually be induced to root by dipping in IBA or other commercially available rooting powders. These softwood stem cuttings should be taken from actively growing shoots except during the period of extremely rapid mid-season elongation (14,63,78). Propagation by excising succulent young sucker shoots from root cuttings is easily accomplished by treating the shoots with IBA and growing them in a suitable medium in a misting chamber until rooted, in about 2 to 3 weeks (62). Quaking aspen scions can be grafted onto balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), willows (Salix spp.), or bigtooth aspen (P. grandidentata). Quaking aspen plantlets have been produced by tissue culture (81).

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Brief Summary

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Salicaceae -- Willow family

D. A. Perala

Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) is the most widely distributed tree in North America. It is known by many names: trembling aspen, golden aspen, mountain aspen, popple, poplar, trembling poplar, and in Spanish, álamo blanco, and álamo temblón (49). It grows on many soil types, especially sandy and gravelly slopes, and it is quick to pioneer disturbed sites where there is bare soil. This fast-growing tree is short lived and pure stands are gradually replaced by slower-growing species. The light, soft wood has very little shrinkage and high grades of aspen are used for lumber and wooden matches. Most aspen wood goes into pulp and flake-board, however. Many kinds of wildlife also benefit from this tree.

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Distribution

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Quaking aspen grows singly and in multi-stemmed clones over 111° of longitude and 48° of latitude for the widest distribution of any native tree species in North America (48). The range extends from Newfoundland and Labrador west across Canada along the northern limit of trees to northwestern Alaska, and southeast through Yukon and British Columbia. Throughout the Western United States it is mostly in the mountains from Washington to California, southern Arizona, Trans-Pecos Texas, and northern Nebraska. From Iowa and eastern Missouri it ranges east to West Virginia, western Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. Quaking aspen is also found in the mountains of Mexico, as far south as Guanajuato. Worldwide, only Populus tremula, European aspen, and Pinus sylvestris, Scotch pine, have wider natural ranges.

-The native range of quaking aspen.

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Populus tremuloides ( Asturian )

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Populus tremuloides

Populus tremuloides, llamáu álamu temblón como'l Populus tremula européu, ye un árbol caducifoliu perteneciente a la familia de les salicacees.

Ilustración

Vista d'un exemplar adultu

Nel so hábitat pel hibiernu

Nel so hábitat

Distribución y hábitat

Ye nativu de les árees menos templaes de Norteamérica, cola llende norteño determináu pola so intolerancia al permafrost. En Canadá puede atopase en toles provincies y territorios, cola posible esceición de Nunavut. En EE. XX. apaez a baxes altitúes en rexones tan al sur como'l norte de Nebraska ya Indiana central. Más al oeste, crez a altitúes más elevaes en llatitúes tan al sur como Guanajuato, Mexico. Nel oeste d'EE. XX., esti árbol raramente sobrevive a altitúes inferiores a 350 metros sobre'l nivel del mar (msnm), por cuenta d'iviernos medios esperimentaos per debaxo de dicha altitú. Xeneralmente atopar ente 1250 y 3000 msnm.

L'apellativu tremuloides fai referencia al estremecimientu o temblón de les sos fueyes, entá cola más leve oral, por cuenta de los esnachaos peciolos. Otres especies de Populus tienen peciolos esnachaos parcialmente a lo llargo del so llargor, mientres l'álamu temblón tener esnacháu de llau a llau a lo llargo de toa'l llargor de los peciolos. Esi temblón de les fueyes produz un soníu nidiu, que munchos consideren un sellu d'identidá d'esta especie.

Descripción

Ye un árbol medianu, usualmente 20-25 m d'adultu, con un tueru de 2-8 dm de diámetru; rexistros máximos midieron 37 m d'altor y 14 dm de diámetru. Les fueyes de los adultos son cercanamente arrondaes, 4-8 cm de diámetru con pequeños escotaduras arrondaes, 3-7 cm de llargor, peciolos esnachaos. Los árboles nuevos tener muncho más llargos (1-2 dm de long.), paeciendo fueyes triangulares. Les flores tienen amentos de 4-6 cm de long, producíes ceo na primavera primero que les fueyes; ye un árbol diclino dioicu, coles flores masculín y femenín en distintos árboles. El frutu son cápsules de 1 dm de llargor, pendulares con un pedúnculu de 6 mm, cada cápsula contién cerca de 10 diminutes granes enfiñíes en pelusa algodonosa, ayudando a la dispersión eólica depués de maurecer a principios del branu.

Esisten clones arbustivos nanos n'ambientes marxinales demasiáu fríos y secos p'allugar a los árboles grandes; por casu, a elevaciones cimeres limitantes nes Montes Blancos, California.

Arrobínase tantu por granes como biltos de raigaños, y l'usu estensivu de colonies clonales ye común. Cada colonia provién d'una madre, llográndose que tolos sos árboles tengan idéntiques carauterístiques, y compartan la estructura radicular. Un clon puede tener un color que toma más tempranu o más tarde nel branu que los sos vecinos distintos clones. Los tonos del branu usualmente bazcuyen nos amarellentaos brillantes; en delles árees, los acolorataos fuertes vense dacuando.

Como tolos fustes d'una colonia clonal son parte d'un mesmu organismu, la colonia clonal Pando, ye considerada la más xigantesca^[1] y más vieyu^[2] organismu viviente de 6.000 t y aprosimao 80.000 años d'antigüedá.

Les fueyes del álamu temblón son alimentu de viermes de delles especies de lepidópteros. Vease Llistáu de lepidópteros que s'alimenten d'álamos (n'inglés).

Decesos

Escontra 1996, espertos estauxunidenses notaron una medría nel númberu d'exemplares muertos o agonizantes d'esta especie. Cuidao que dichu medría foise acelerando, l'alderique sobre les sos causes siguía entá en 2004. Nun apaecíen inseutos, enfermedaes o condiciones ambientales qu'específicamente identificaren la(s) causa(s). Yá toparon árboles vivos axacentes a unu muertu, o arbolees enteres o parciales muertes.

Munches árees del oeste d'EE.XX. esperimentaron una medría na mortalidá, frecuentemente atribuyíu a campera escesiva per parte del ganáu. En terrenes altos, onde les camperes pueden ser escasos y raros, el ganáu taramia los nuevos biltos d'álamu temblón, torgando que lleguen al maduror. Nesos casos, el ganáu pon en serio apeligro la salú del plantíu. Como resultancia, delles alamees asitiaes na proximidá de la zona de llendo vense invadíes por coníferes, que'l ganáu nun pruyir. A la fin, los árboles de coníferes compiten colos álamos por cuenta de que éstos nun pueden reproducise pola falta de nuevos biltos. Tamién les yerbes colonicen dichos terrenales.

Por cuenta de que el mecanismu de rexeneración vexetativa pa reproducise usáu polos álamos ye esencialmente clonal, presumiblemente comparten les mesmes vulnerabilidaes: la debilidá d'unu ye la de tol grupu y, finalmente, la causa de la muerte de toos. Y comparten el floriamientu conxuntu, el biltu de les fueyes ye simultáneu, etc en cada grupu parental. Nuna conferencia en Utah, en septiembre de 2006, compartiéronse esperiencies y futures metodoloxíes d'investigación.

Resulta oportunu destacar la resistencia del álamu temblón al fueu. He equí la so estratexa. Los sos raigaños producen biltos d'árboles nuevos hasta a 80 m. de distancia. Si'l fueu asocede pel hibiernu, la capa xelada caltién a los raigaños que vuelven brotar. Y facer bien rápido pos parten d'un respaldu radicular yá establecíu. Lo mesmo asocede en primavera yá que el suelu ta encharcáu. Por tantu'l fueu favorez la preeminencia d'esta especie frente a les coníferes. Sicasí si la quema produzse pel branu, toos perecen.^[3]

[1].

Taxonomía

Populus tremuloides describióse por André Michaux y espublizóse en Flora Boreali-Americana 2: 243. 1803.^[4]

Sinonimia

Populus aurea Tidestr.
Populus cercidiphylla Britt.
Populus polygonifolia Bernard
Populus tremula subsp. tremuloides (Michx.) Á.Löve & D.Löve
Populus tremuloides var. aurea (Tidestr.) Daniels
Populus tremuloides var. cercidiphylla (Britt.) Sudw.
Populus tremuloides var. Entemedia Vict.
Populus tremuloides var. magnifica Vict.
Populus tremuloides var. rhomboidea Vict.
Populus tremuloides var. vancouveriana (Trel.) Sarg.
Populus vancouveriana Trel.
[2]

Ver tamién

Referencies

↑ Genetic Variation and the Natural History of Quaking Aspen, Jeffry B. Mitton; Michael C. Grant, BioScience, Vol. 46, Non. 1. (Jan., 1996), pp. 25-31.
↑ Quaking Aspen by the Bryce Canyon National Park Service
↑ The Secret Life of Trees, Colin Tudge. Penguin Books. London 2005. Páx. 307
↑ «Populus tremuloides». Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. Consultáu'l 16 de xunetu de 2014.

Bibliografía

Farrar, John Laird. Árboles de Canadá. Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1995
Hickman, James C., ed. Manual Jepson: Plantes Cimeres de California, 0520082559. Universidá de California Press, 1993.

Enllaces esternos

Wikimedia Commons acueye conteníu multimedia sobre Populus tremuloides .
Detalles y semeyes
Manual del US Forest Service Silvics: Populus tremuloides
US Forest Service Fire Effects Information System: Populus tremuloides
Sistema Integráu d'Información Taxonómica. «Populus tremuloides (TSN 195773)» (inglés).

Esta páxina forma parte del wikiproyeutu Botánica, un esfuerciu collaborativu col fin d'ameyorar y organizar tolos conteníos rellacionaos con esti tema. Visita la páxina d'alderique del proyeutu pa collaborar y facer entrugues o suxerencies.

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Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary ( Asturian )

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Populus tremuloides

Populus tremuloides, llamáu álamu temblón como'l Populus tremula européu, ye un árbol caducifoliu perteneciente a la familia de les salicacees.

Ilustración

Vista d'un exemplar adultu

Nel so hábitat pel hibiernu

Nel so hábitat

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Populus tremuloides ( Azerbaijani )

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Populus tremuloides (lat. Populus tremuloides) - söyüdkimilər fəsiləsinin qovaq cinsinə aid bitki növü.

Mənbə

İkiləpəlilər ilə əlaqədar bu məqalə qaralama halındadır. Məqaləni redaktə edərək Vikipediyanı zənginləşdirin.

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Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary ( Azerbaijani )

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Populus tremuloides (lat. Populus tremuloides) - söyüdkimilər fəsiləsinin qovaq cinsinə aid bitki növü.

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Populus tremuloides ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Per a altres significats, vegeu «Populus tremula».

Populus tremuloides és una espècie de pollancre caducifoli originari d'Amèrica del Nord i és una de les diverses espècies que en anglès reben el nom d'Aspen. Aquesta espècies rep el nom comú en anglès de quaking aspen que normalment es tradueix per trèmol (de l'espècie europea diferent Populus tremula),^[1] trembling aspen,^[1] American aspen,^[1] Quakies, mountain o golden aspen,^[2] trembling poplar,^[2] white poplar,^[2] popple,^[2] i encara més noms en anglès.^[2] Aquests arbres fan fins a 25 m d'alt amb l'escorça llisa i pàl·lida amb parts negres.

Aquest pollancre té una àmplia distribució a Amèrica del Nord es troba des del Canadà al Mèxic Central.^[3] És l'espècie que defineix el bioma Aspen parkland a l'oest del Canadà.

Contingut

1 Nom
2 Descripció
3 Distribució
4 Usos
5 Notes
6 Referències

Nom

El nom de quaking o trembling (tremolador) de les seves fulles és pel fet que aquestes tenen un pecíol flexible i aplanat que amb el vent sembla que tremolin. L'epítet específic tremuloides, significa el mateix que el tremula del Populus tremula, el trèmol europeu.

Descripció

P. tremuloides prop d'Aspen, Colorado

És un arbre de creixement ràpid. Les fulles dels arbres adults fan de 4 a 6 cm de diàmetre i són dentades, però la dels arbres joves poden ser més grosses (de 10 a 20 cm). Els pecíols fan de 3 a 7 cm de llargada. És una planta dioica. Floreix en aments de 4–6 centimetres. El fruit és en càpsules que contenen llavors cadascuna amb un plomall cotonós que serveix per a dispersar-la a principis d'estiu.

Distribució

La distribució cap al nord està limitada per la seva intolerància al permagel. Al canadà es troba arreu excepte a Nunavut. Als Estats Units arriba fins a la serralada Brooks Range d'Alaska. Creix fins a gran altitud en el cas Mèxic (Guanajuato).

Usos

L'escorça de P. tremuloides va ser utilitzada pel natius americans i els pioners com un substitut de la quinina..^[4]

Com la d'altres pollancres la seva fusta és un combustible deficient. Les seves fulles alimenten diverses erugues.

Al Canadà principalment se'n fa pasta de paper. També es fa servir per a fer mobles i caixes entre d'altres.

La superfície ocupada per aquests arbres ha davallat molt des del segle XIX i XX per les tallades i l'ocupació agrícola de la seva zona natural.

Notes

↑ ^1,0 ^1,1 ^1,2 «USDA GRIN taxonomy».
↑ ^2,0 ^2,1 ^2,2 ^2,3 ^2,4 «technology transfer fact sheet: Populus spp.». Forest Products Laboratory: R&D USDA. Madison, Wisconsin: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Center for Wood Anatomy Research. [Consulta: 20 setembre 2010].
↑ «Aspen, Quaking (Populus tremuloides)». Arbor Day Foundation.
↑ Ewing, Susan. The Great Alaska Nature Factbook. Portland: Alaska Northwest Books, 1996.

Referències

Farrar, John Laird. Trees In Canada. Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1995
Hickman, James C., ed. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California, 0520082559. University of California Press, 1993.

En altres projectes de Wikimedia:

Commons (Galeria)

Commons (Categoria)

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Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary ( Catalan; Valencian )

provided by wikipedia CA

Populus tremuloides és una espècie de pollancre caducifoli originari d'Amèrica del Nord i és una de les diverses espècies que en anglès reben el nom d'Aspen. Aquesta espècies rep el nom comú en anglès de quaking aspen que normalment es tradueix per trèmol (de l'espècie europea diferent Populus tremula), trembling aspen, American aspen, Quakies, mountain o golden aspen, trembling poplar, white poplar, popple, i encara més noms en anglès. Aquests arbres fan fins a 25 m d'alt amb l'escorça llisa i pàl·lida amb parts negres.

Aquest pollancre té una àmplia distribució a Amèrica del Nord es troba des del Canadà al Mèxic Central. És l'espècie que defineix el bioma Aspen parkland a l'oest del Canadà.

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Amerikansk asp ( Danish )

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Amerikansk Asp (Populus tremuloides) er et løvfældende træ fra de koldere dele af Nordamerika.

Referencer

US Forest Service Silvics Manual: Populus tremuloides
US Forest Service Fire Effects Information System: Populus tremuloides
Alberta Forest Genetic Resources Council: Populus tremuloides
Interactive Distribution Map for Populus tremuloides
Populus tremuloides (TSN 195773). Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
Farrar, John Laird. Trees In Canada. Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1995
Hickman, James C., ed. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California, 0520082559. University of California Press, 1993.

Stub

Denne botanikartikel er kun påbegyndt. Hvis du ved mere om emnet, kan du hjælpe Wikipedia ved at udvide den.

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Amerikansk asp: Brief Summary ( Danish )

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Amerikansk Asp (Populus tremuloides) er et løvfældende træ fra de koldere dele af Nordamerika.

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Amerikanische Zitterpappel ( German )

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Die Amerikanische Zitterpappel (Populus tremuloides) oder Amerikanische Espe ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Pappeln (Populus) innerhalb der Familie der Weidengewächse (Salicaceae). Sie kommt in Nordamerika (englisch Quaking aspen genannt) vor. Ihren Verbreitungsschwerpunkt hat sie im Süden Alaskas und im Westen Kanadas, kommt aber auch noch in Mexiko vor. Sie wächst auf vielen Böden, besonders an sandigen oder kiesigen Hängen und ist eine schnell siedelnde Pionierpflanze auf gestörten Böden. Als einzelstämmiger Baum oder vielstämmiger Aufwuchs desselben Individuums (Genete (Klone) durch vegetative Vermehrung) ist sie eine Baumart mit einem besonders großen Verbreitungsgebiet. Populus tremuloides ist schnellwachsend, aber kurzlebig und in Reinbeständen wird er sukzessive von anderen Arten verdrängt. Das leichte und weiche Holz schrumpft nur wenig und manche Sorten werden als Nutzholz, zur Zellstofferzeugung oder Spanplattenherstellung genutzt. Populus tremuloides ist aber auch eine wichtige Art ihrer heimischen Ökosysteme.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1 Habitus und Alter
2 Wurzel
3 Lebenszyklus
- 3.1 Reproduktion und Jugend
4 Verbreitungsgebiet und Lebensraum
5 Nutzung
6 Literatur
7 Weblinks
8 Einzelnachweise

Habitus und Alter

Ein Waldstück mit Amerikanischen Zitterpappeln

Herbstliche Färbung der Bäume

Populus tremuloides ist ein kleiner bis mittelgroßer, schnellwachsender Baum. Den größten Höhenzuwachs haben die jungen Bäume während ihrer ersten 20 Jahre. Unter besten Voraussetzungen können sie einen Stammdurchmesser von 137 cm und eine Wuchshöhe von 26 Meter erreichen, so zum Beispiel das größte Exemplar in Oregon. Rekordhöhen von bis zu 27 Meter findet man in Alaska und in den Rocky Mountains. Die meisten Altbäume werden jedoch nicht höher als 20 bis 25 Meter und erreichen einen Durchmesser von durchschnittlich 30 cm. Einige wenige Bäume erreichen ein Alter von 200 Jahren (ein Exemplar in Alaska ist 226 Jahre alt). Während die einzelnen Triebe eines Klons durch vegetative Vermehrung kurzlebig sind, mag das ursprüngliche Individuum schon mehrere tausend Jahre alt sein und damit älter als die ältesten Riesenmammutbäume (Sequoiadendron giganteum). Eine besonders alte und große Klonkolonie in Utah ist unter dem Namen Pando bekannt.

Populus tremuloides hat eine lockere, runde Krone und einen schlanken, Stamm, der heller als der der Zitterpappel P. tremula ist. Ein gutes Bestimmungsmerkmal sind seine Blätter: Sie sind eirund, kurz zugespitzt und fein gesägt.^[1]

Wurzel

Die Jungpflanzen haben anfangs eine kurze Pfahlwurzel, die sich auf tiefgründigen Böden mit guter Wasserführung schnell zu einem Herzwurzelsystem ausbildet. Wenn die Durchwurzelungstiefe begrenzt ist, suchen sich die Wurzeln flachstreichend und weiträumig ihren Platz.

Flache und ausgiebige Seitenäste haben schnurartige Zweigwurzeln, die sich, nah der Oberfläche, ohne Senkwurzeln über große Entfernungen schlängeln und dabei die Masse der Wurzelbrut produzieren.

Lebenszyklus

Reproduktion und Jugend

Blüte und Fruchtstände

Populus tremuloides ist meist zweihäusig getrenntgeschlechtig (diözisch), es gibt also männliche und weibliche Exemplare. Obwohl die Blüten typischerweise eingeschlechtig sind, sind 10 bis 20 Prozent der überwiegend weiblichen Bäume und 4 bis 5 Prozent der überwiegend männlichen Bäume androdiözisch. Die Stockaustriebe (Klone) eines einzelnen Baumes sind entweder männlich oder weiblich. Meist sind beide Geschlechter gleich stark vertreten, wobei örtlich Abweichungen in dem Verhältnis beobachtet wurden.

Die hängenden Blütenkätzchen werden 4 bis 6 cm lang und erscheinen in gemäßigten Küstenregionen im April bis Mai und in den zentralen Rockies im Mai bis Juni vor dem Laubaustrieb; eine Lufttemperatur von mindestens 12 °C, die über sechs Tage anhält, löst die Blüte aus. Lokale Klone bilden Variationen, die in ihren Blühterminen abweichen. Populus tremuloides ist ein Windbestäuber.

Die befruchteten Kätzchen sind vier bis fünf Wochen nach der Anthese reif und dann etwa 10 cm lang. Jedes Kätzchen besteht dann aus mehreren Dutzend einzelligen, hellgrünen Kapselfrüchte, die fast 6 mm lang werden. Jede dieser Kapselfrüchte enthält zehn kleine braune Samen, die von Büscheln langer, seidiger Haare umgeben sind.

Samen und Aussaat

In einem Turnus von vier bis fünf Jahren werden Saaten sehr reichhaltig produziert, während die Früchte in den Jahren dazwischen weniger kräftig ausfallen. Manche Klone produzieren ab einem Alter von zwei bis drei Jahren bereits jährlich Samen. Große Früchte mit vielen Samen treten erst ab einem Alter von 10 bis 20 Jahren auf, und das Optimum wird im Alter zwischen 50 und 70 Jahren erreicht. Im Alter von 23 Jahren produzierte eine Populus tremuloides 1,6 Millionen Samen. Gereinigt sind in einem Gramm 5500 bis 8000 einzelne Samen enthalten.

Die Samen eines Baumes reifen in einem Zeitraum von drei bis fünf Wochen und werden wenige Tage nach Erreichen ihrer Reife verteilt. Durch ihre langen seidigen Haarbüschel können sie mit Wind und Wasser etliche Kilometer verfrachtet werden. Die Lebensfähigkeit frischer Samen ist hoch (über 95 %), aber von kurzer Dauer. Unter idealen natürlichen Bedingungen bleiben die Samen zwei bis vier Wochen fruchtbar und sie können über ein Jahr konserviert werden. Die Sämlinge gedeihen bei einer Keimtemperatur zwischen 5 °C und 29 °C am besten. Die Keimung geschieht ohne Ruhestadium wenige Tage nach der Verbreitung, wenn ein ausreichendes Saatbett erreicht wurde. Die Feuchtigkeit ist ein kritischer Faktor: Die Samen keimen, vollständig in Wasser untergetaucht oder auch in völliger Dunkelheit, aber nicht, wenn zu wenig Wasser im Substrat verfügbar ist.

Entwicklung der Sämlinge

Die Samen keimen epigäisch (oberirdisch). Während der ersten kritischen Tage, in denen die Primärwurzel eines Keimlings zunächst sehr langsam wächst, übernehmen die feinen Haare der Samen die Funktionen der Verankerung und Absorption. Nackte Mineralböden bieten hierbei die besten und Rohhumus die schlechtesten Bedingungen.

Obwohl die Samen sehr zahlreich ausgestreut werden und leicht keimen, ist die Überlebensrate gering. Die Gründe dafür sind die Kurzlebigkeit der Samen. Die passende Wasserversorgung, zu hohe Bodentemperaturen und gleichzeitig große Temperaturschwankungen im Tagesgang kurz nach der Keimung, Pilzbefall, und unpassender Chemismus des Substrates beschränken den Erfolg.

Im ersten Jahr erreichen die Sämlinge eine Höhe von 15 bis 30 cm über der Erde. In derselben Zeit bildet die Pflanze eine Pfahlwurzel aus, die bis zu 25 cm tief reicht und über bis zu 40 cm lange Seitenwurzeln verfügt. In den nächsten zwei Jahren prägen junge Pappeln dieser Art ein Wurzelwerk aus, dessen einzelne Seitenwurzeln 2 m lang oder länger werden können. Dabei werden Wurzelsymbiosen (Ektomykorrhizen) gebildet, sofern passende Stämme im Boden vorhanden sind (Inokulation).

Während der ersten Jahre wachsen Sämlinge in der Natur schneller als gepflanzte Setzlinge; wobei selbstverständlich Wurzelschösslinge am schnellsten wachsen.

Verbreitungsgebiet und Lebensraum

Verbreitungskarte

Klima

Die klimatischen Bedingungen in ihrem Verbreitungsgebiet variieren stark. Populus tremuloides meidet sehr trockene Klimate und gedeiht nur in Gebieten mit positiver Niederschlagsbilanz. Wo ausreichend Wasser vorhanden ist, ist die Temperatur begrenzender Faktor ihres Verbreitungsgebietes. Hohe Sommertemperaturen bzw. Sommertrockenheit haben geringere Wuchshöhen und Lebensspannen zur Folge.

Die amerikanische Zitterpappel kommt noch an warmen Stellen der Permafrost-Zone Kanadas bzw. Alaskas vor; ihr Verbreitungsgebiet reicht bis in die östlichen Provinzen Kanadas, die mit ihrem milden und feuchten Klima auch sehr hohe Schneemengen aufweisen. In den zentralen Rocky Mountains (Wyoming, Colorado) ist sie in Höhenlagen von 2000 bis 3500 Meter zu finden. In Niederkalifornien kommt sie nicht unter 2440 Meter und in New Mexico und Arizona nicht unter 2000 Meter vor. Ihre östliche Verbreitungsgrenze in den USA entspricht etwa der 24 °C-Isotherme (durchschnittliche Temperatur im Juli).

Böden und Topografie

Populus tremuloides wächst hauptsächlich auf Alfisol, Podsol und Inceptisol; insgesamt kommt sie aber auch noch auf sehr flachgründigen und felsigen Böden wie auf tiefgründigen lehmigen Sanden oder schweren Tonböden vor. Bei Aufforstung wächst sie auch auf Bodendeponien. Bei jungen oder flachgründigen Böden werden basische Böden basaltischer Herkunft gegenüber Granit bevorzugt. Gute Pappelböden sind meist nicht zu feuchte, kalkhaltige lehmige Böden mit hohem Humusgehalt und guter Nährstoffversorgung. Wegen ihres schnellen Wachstums und ihrem Nährstoffbedarf ist sie eine wichtige Größe im Nährstoffkreislauf.

Die Bodenwasserführung ist ein kritischer Punkt bei den Ansprüchen der Pappel. Grundwasserflurabstände von weniger als 0,6 Meter sind ebenso problematisch wie solche über 2,6 Meter. Schwere und nasse Tonböden sind wegen ihrer Sauerstoffarmut nicht gut geeignet.

Waldgesellschaften

Populus tremuloides wächst in einer Vielzahl von Waldgesellschaften Amerikas. Sie ist sehr häufig in „östlichen“ und „westlichen Pappelwäldern“, in „Fichten-Pappel-Wäldern“ der amerikanischen Waldgesellschaften^[2]. Einen geringeren Anteil hat sie an weiteren 35 Waldgesellschaften und selten ist sie in drei dieser insgesamt 255 als Forest Cover Types erfassten Formationen. Die Amerikanische Zitterpappel gleicht in ihrem Verhalten der Zitterpappel P. tremula.^[1]

Assoziierte Sträucher sind Corylus cornuta, Corylus americana, Acer spicatum, Alnus rugosa, Alnus crispa, Diervilla lonicera, Rubus, Ribes and Salix. In Bereichen der Prärie ist sie außerdem mit Symphoricarpos, Viburnum edule, Lonicera dioica, Cornus stolonifera, Amelanchier alnifolia, Prunus virginiana, Salix bebbiana und Rosa vergesellschaftet; in Alaska ist sie außerdem mit Salix scouleriana, Shepherdia canadensis und Vaccinium vitis-idaea vergesellschaftet. In den Rocky Mountains sind dies Symphoricarpos oreophilus, Amelanchier alnifolia, Juniperus communis, Sambucus pubens und andere.

Krautige Pflanzen, die sich den Lebensraum mit P. tremuloides teilen, sind Aster macrophyllus, Aralia nudicaulis, Maianthemum canadense, Cornus canadensis, Clintonia borealis, Solidago, Carex und andere. Im westlichen Verbreitungsgebiet sind die krautigen Begleiter zu zahlreich, um sie aufzuführen.

Nutzung

In absehbarer Zukunft dürften die meisten Standorte der Art Populus tremuloides extensiv zu bewirtschaften sein. Verwendung finden das Holz von Populus tremuloides als Zellstofflieferant, für die Herstellung von Holzfaser- oder Spanplatten sowie von Schnittholz. Geerntet wird Populus tremuloides entweder als Hackschnitzel oder als Rundholz. Die besten Bäume können durch Auslichtung des Bestandes gefördert werden, um höherwertiges Rundholz zu erzeugen.

Ein alkoholischer Auszug aus den Espenblättern fand früher auch Verwendung bei der Zubereitung von Prostagutt-Tropfen zur heilkundlichen Anwendung gegen Prostatavergrößerung.^[3]

Literatur

D. A. Perala: Quaking Aspen. In: R. M. Burns, B. H. Honkala (Hrsg.): Silvics of North America. Agriculture Handbook 654, USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC (Online).

Einzelnachweise

↑ ^a ^b Horst Bartels, 1993: Gehölzkunde - Einführung in die Dendrologie. Ulmer, Stuttgart. ISBN 3-8001-2648-6
↑ Society of American Foresters Forest Cover Types (SAF 1980) (Memento vom 15. Januar 2009 im Internet Archive) (PDF; 437 kB)
↑ Lykke Aresin, Helga Hörz, Hannes Hüttner, Hans Szewczyk: Lexikon der Humansexuologie. Verlag Volk und Gesundheit, Berlin 1990, S. 164 (Quaking aspen).

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Amerikanische Zitterpappel: Brief Summary ( German )

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Die Amerikanische Zitterpappel (Populus tremuloides) oder Amerikanische Espe ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Pappeln (Populus) innerhalb der Familie der Weidengewächse (Salicaceae). Sie kommt in Nordamerika (englisch Quaking aspen genannt) vor. Ihren Verbreitungsschwerpunkt hat sie im Süden Alaskas und im Westen Kanadas, kommt aber auch noch in Mexiko vor. Sie wächst auf vielen Böden, besonders an sandigen oder kiesigen Hängen und ist eine schnell siedelnde Pionierpflanze auf gestörten Böden. Als einzelstämmiger Baum oder vielstämmiger Aufwuchs desselben Individuums (Genete (Klone) durch vegetative Vermehrung) ist sie eine Baumart mit einem besonders großen Verbreitungsgebiet. Populus tremuloides ist schnellwachsend, aber kurzlebig und in Reinbeständen wird er sukzessive von anderen Arten verdrängt. Das leichte und weiche Holz schrumpft nur wenig und manche Sorten werden als Nutzholz, zur Zellstofferzeugung oder Spanplattenherstellung genutzt. Populus tremuloides ist aber auch eine wichtige Art ihrer heimischen Ökosysteme.

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Populus tremuloides ( Udmurt )

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Populus tremuloides

Populus tremuloides

Populus tremuloides (лат. Populus tremuloides ) – Salicaceae семьяысь Канадаын но Америкалэн Огазеяськем Штатъёсаз будӥсь тополь. Ӝуждалаез ог 20–25 м, модослэн диаметрез 20–80 см.

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நடுங்கும் மரம் ( Tamil )

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பொருளடக்கம்

1 நடுங்கும் மரம்
- 1.1 வகைப்பாடு
- 1.2 இதரப் பெயர்கள்
2 மரத்தின் அமைவு
3 இலை அமைவு
4 காணப்படும் பகுதி
5 மேற்கோள்

நடுங்கும் மரம்

[1] [2]

நடுங்கும் மரத்தின் இலைகள்

வகைப்பாடு

தாவரவியல் பெயர் :பாப்புலஸ் ரெமுலஸ் Populus Tremulodies

குடும்பம் :சாலிக்கேசியீ (Salicaceae)

இதரப் பெயர்கள்

பாப்பளர்
ஆஸ்ப்பெண்

மரத்தின் அமைவு

இம்மரம் 80 முதல் 100 அடி உயரம் (25-30மீ) வரை வளரக் கூடியது. ஈரமான இடங்களில் மிக வேகமாக நன்றாக வளரக்கூடியது. இவற்றின் பூக்கள் ஒரு பாலின, ஆண் மரம் வேறு, பெண் மரம் வேறு. மகரந்தச் சேர்க்கை காற்றின் மூலம் நடக்கும். விதைகள் சிறியவை பஞ்சு போன்ற மயிர்கள் குஞ்சமாக வளர்ந்திருக்கும்.

இலை அமைவு

இம்மரத்தின் இலைகள் மெல்லிய கிளைகளில் தொங்கிக் கொண்டிருக்கும் இலைகள் முக்கோண வடிவமாகவோ (அ) முட்டை வடிவமாகவோ இருக்கும். இதனுடைய பச்சையான இலைகள் இலையுதிர்க் காலத்தில் மஞ்சள் நிறமாக மாறும். காற்று லேசாக வீசினாலும் இவ்விலைகள் நடுங்குவது போல விடவிட என்று அசையும். மழைத்துளி விழுவது போன்ற சிறிய மென்காற்றுக்கும் இதன் இலைகள் அசைந்தாடும். இதனால் இம்மரம் பூமி அதிர்ச்சியை முன் கூட்டியே தெரிந்துகொள்ளும்.

காணப்படும் பகுதி

இம்மரம் வெண்மையாகவும் மென்மையாகவும் இருக்கும் இவை பெட்டியும், காகிதம் செய்யவும் பயன்படுகிறது. இம்மரங்கள் வட அமெரிக்கா, கலிபோர்னியாவில் வளர்கின்றன.

மேற்கோள்

[3]

| 1 || சிறியதும் - பெரியதும் ^[1] || அறிவியல் வெளியீடு || ஜூன் 2001

↑ சிறிதும் - பெரியதும். அறிவியல் வெளியீடு. http://books.google.com/books/about/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF.html?id=vKXyPAAACAAJ.

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Vé'škee'e

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Vé'škee'e, Ma'xekôsáeho'honáéva

Xamaehoohtsêstse (Populus tremuloides) hoohtseto-éve.

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Populus tremuloides

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Populus tremuloides is a deciduous tree native to cooler areas of North America, one of several species referred to by the common name aspen. It is commonly called quaking aspen,^[2]^[3]^[4] trembling aspen,^[2]^[3] American aspen,^[3] mountain or golden aspen,^[5] trembling poplar,^[5] white poplar,^[5] and popple,^[5] as well as others.^[5] The trees have tall trunks, up to 25 meters (82 feet) tall, with smooth pale bark, scarred with black. The glossy green leaves, dull beneath, become golden to yellow, rarely red, in autumn. The species often propagates through its roots to form large clonal groves originating from a shared root system. These roots are not rhizomes, as new growth develops from adventitious buds on the parent root system (the ortet).

Populus tremuloides is the most widely distributed tree in North America, being found from Canada to central Mexico.^[4]^[6] It is the defining species of the aspen parkland biome in the Prairie Provinces of Canada and extreme northwest Minnesota.

Description

Aspen catkins in spring

Quaking aspen is a tall, fast-growing tree, usually 15–18 meters (50–60 ft) at maturity, with a trunk 25 centimeters (10 in) in diameter;^[7] records are 36.5 m (119 ft 9 in) in height and 1.37 m (4 ft 6 in) in diameter. The bark is relatively smooth, whitish (light green when young),^[7] and is marked by thick black horizontal scars and prominent black knots. Parallel vertical scars are tell-tale signs of elk, which strip off aspen bark with their front teeth.

The leaves on mature trees are nearly round, 4–6 cm (1+1⁄2–2+1⁄4 in) in diameter^[7] with small rounded teeth, and a 3–7 cm (1+1⁄4–2+3⁄4 in) long flattened^[7] petiole. The leaves are green above and gray below.^[7] Young trees and root sprouts have much larger (10–20 cm, 4–8 in long), nearly triangular leaves. (Some species of Populus have petioles flattened partially along their length, while the aspens and some other poplars have them flattened from side to side along the entire length of the petiole.)

Aspens are dioecious, with separate male and female clones. The flowers are catkins 4–6 cm (1+1⁄2–2+1⁄4 in) long, produced in early spring before the leaves. The fruit is a 10 cm-long (4 in) pendulous string of 6-millimeter (1⁄4 in) capsules, each capsule containing about ten minute seeds embedded in cottony fluff, which aids wind dispersal of the seeds when they are mature in early summer. Trees as young as 2–3 years old may begin seed production, but significant output starts at 10 years of age. Best seed production is obtained between the ages of 50 and 70 years.^[2]

Quaking aspen grows more slowly in the dry conditions of western North America than it does in the more humid east and also lives longer—ages of 80–100 years are typical,^[7] with some individuals living 200 years; the root system can live much longer.^[7] In the east, stands decay faster, sometimes in 60 years or less depending on the region.

Name

The quaking or trembling of the leaves that is referred to in the common names is due to the flexible flattened petioles. The specific epithet, tremuloides, evokes this trembling behavior and can be literally translated as "like (Populus) tremula", the European trembling aspen.

Distribution

Trembling aspen at sunset in Langley, British Columbia, December 2010

Quaking aspen occurs across Canada in all provinces and territories, with the possible exception of regions of Nunavut north of the James Bay islands. In the United States, it can be found as far north as the northern foothills of the Brooks Range in Alaska, where road margins and gravel pads provide islands of well-drained habitat in a region where soils are often waterlogged due to underlying permafrost.^[8] It occurs at low elevations as far south as northern Nebraska and central Indiana. In the Western United States, this tree rarely survives at elevations lower than 1,500 feet (460 m) due to hot summers experienced below that elevation, and is generally found at 5,000–12,000 feet (1,500–3,700 m). It grows at high altitudes as far south as Guanajuato, Mexico.^[4]

Quaking aspen grows in a wide variety of climatic conditions. January and July average temperatures range from −30 °C (−22 °F) and 16 °C (61 °F) in the Alaska Interior to −3 °C (27 °F) and 23 °C (73 °F) in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Average annual precipitation ranges from 1,020 mm (40 inches) in Gander, Newfoundland and Labrador to as little as 180 mm (7 inches) in the Alaska Interior. The southern limit of the species' range roughly follows the 24 °C (75 °F) mean July isotherm.^[4]

In the sagebrush steppe, aspens occur with chokecherry, serviceberry, and hawthorn, forming a habitable haven for animal life.^[9] Shrub-like dwarf clones exist in marginal environments too cold and dry to be hospitable to full-size trees, for example at the species' upper elevation limits in the White Mountains.^[10]

Ecology

Clonal colonies of different autumnal colors on a mountainside in the Matanuska Valley in Alaska

Quaking aspen propagates itself primarily through root sprouts, and extensive clonal colonies are common. Each colony is its own clone, and all trees in the clone have identical characteristics and share a single root structure. A clone may turn color earlier or later in the fall than its neighbouring aspen clones. Fall colors are usually bright tones of yellow; in some areas, red blushes may be occasionally seen. As all trees in a given clonal colony are considered part of the same organism, one clonal colony, named Pando, is considered the heaviest^[11] and oldest^[2] living organism at six million kilograms and perhaps 80,000 years old. Aspens do produce seeds, but seldom grow from them. Pollination is inhibited by the fact that aspens are either male or female, and large stands are usually all clones of the same sex. Even if pollinated, the small seeds (three million per pound) are only viable a short time as they lack a stored food source or a protective coating.^[12]

The buds and bark supply food for snowshoe hares, moose, black bears, cottontail rabbits, porcupines, deer, grouse, and mountain beavers. The shoots are eaten by sheep, goats, and cattle. Sheep and goats also browse the foliage, as do game animals including elk.^[13]^[14] Grouse and quail especially eat the buds in winter. Mammals such as beavers and rabbits eat the bark, foliage, and buds.^[13] Beavers also store aspen logs for winter food. Other animals nest in aspen groves.^[7] The leaves of the quaking aspen and other species in the genus Populus serve as food for caterpillars of various moths and butterflies. Quaking aspen trees also serve as hosts to certain damaging insects such as the large aspen tortrix. ^[15]

Dieback

Typical yellow autumn foliage

Atypical orange and red autumn foliage

Beginning in the 1990s, North American scientists noticed an increase in dead or dying aspen trees. As this accelerated in 2004, a debate over causes began. No insect, disease, or environmental condition has yet been definitively identified as a cause. Trees adjacent to one another are often stricken or not. In other instances, entire groves have died.

Many areas of the Western US have experienced increased diebacks which are often attributed to ungulate grazing and wildfire suppression. At high altitudes where grasses can be rare, ungulates can browse young aspen sprouts and prevent those young trees from reaching maturity. As a result, some aspen groves close to cattle or other grazing animals, such as deer or elk, have very few young trees and can be invaded by conifers, which are not typically browsed. Another possible deterrent to aspen regeneration is widespread wildfire suppression. Aspens are vigorous resprouters and even though the above-ground portion of the organism may die in a wild-fire, the roots, which are often protected from lethal temperatures during a fire, will sprout new trees soon after a fire. Disturbances such as fires seem to be a necessary ecological event in order for aspens to compete with conifers, which tend to replace aspens over long, disturbance-free intervals. The current dieback in the American West may have roots in the strict fire suppression policy in the United States.^[16] On the other hand, the widespread decimation of conifer forests by the mountain pine beetle may provide increased opportunities for aspen groves to proliferate under the right conditions.^[17]

Because of vegetative regeneration by aspen, where an entire group of trees are essentially clones, there is a concern that something that hits one will eventually kill all of the trees, presuming they share the same vulnerability. A conference was held in Utah in September 2006 to share notes and consider investigative methodology.^[18]

Uses

Aspen bark contains a substance that was extracted by indigenous North Americans and European settlers of the western U.S. as a quinine substitute.^[12]

Like other poplars, aspens make poor fuel wood, as they dry slowly, rot quickly, and do not give off much heat. Yet they are still widely used in campgrounds because they are cheap and plentiful and not widely used in building lumber. Pioneers in the North American west used them to create log cabins and dugouts, though they were not the preferred species.

Aspen wood is used for pulp products^[7] (its main application in Canada) such as books, newsprint, and fine printing paper. It is especially good for panel products such as oriented strand board and waferboard. It is light in weight and is used for furniture, boxes and crates, core stock in plywood, and wall panels.

Culture

The quaking aspen is the state tree of Utah.^[19]

References

^ Barstow, M. & Stritch, L. 2018. Populus tremuloides. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T61960127A61960136. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T61960127A61960136.en. Downloaded on 20 September 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Quaking Aspen by the Bryce Canyon National Park Service
^ ^a ^b ^c "Populus tremuloides". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Perala, D. A. (1990). "Populus tremuloides". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Hardwoods. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Vol. 2 – via Southern Research Station.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "technology transfer fact sheet: Populus spp" (PDF). Forest Products Laboratory: R&D USDA. Madison, Wisconsin: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Center for Wood Anatomy Research. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
^ "Aspen, Quaking (Populus tremuloides)". Arbor Day Foundation.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. (2020) [1977]. Northwest Trees: Identifying & Understanding the Region's Native Trees (field guide ed.). Seattle: Mountaineers Books. pp. 203–208. ISBN 978-1-68051-329-5. OCLC 1141235469.
^ Ackerman, Daniel; Breen, Amy (2016-06-06). "Infrastructure Development Accelerates Range Expansion of Trembling Aspen ( Populus tremuloides, Salicaceae) into the Arctic". Arctic. 69 (2): 130–136. doi:10.14430/arctic4560. ISSN 1923-1245.
^ Taylor, Ronald J. (1994) [1992]. Sagebrush Country: A Wildflower Sanctuary (rev. ed.). Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Pub. Co. p. 174. ISBN 0-87842-280-3. OCLC 25708726.
^ Hall, Clarence A., ed. (1991). Natural history of the White-Inyo Range, eastern California. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 91. ISBN 0-520-06895-5. OCLC 23653610.
^ Genetic Variation and the Natural History of Quaking Aspen, Jeffry B. Mitton; Michael C. Grant, BioScience, Vol. 46, No. 1. (Jan., 1996), pp. 25-31.
^ ^a ^b Ewing, Susan. The Great Alaska Nature Factbook. Portland: Alaska Northwest Books, 1996.
^ ^a ^b Whitney, Stephen (1985). Western Forests (The Audubon Society Nature Guides). New York: Knopf. p. 390. ISBN 0-394-73127-1.
^ Peattie, Donald Culross (1953). A Natural History of Western Trees. New York: Bonanza Books. p. 320.
^ Parry, Dylan (1997). The relationship between trembling aspen phenology and larval development of the large aspen tortrix. W. J. A. Volney, C. R. Currie, Northern Forestry Centre. Edmonton: Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre. ISBN 0-662-25404-X. OCLC 36695777.
^ Haskins; et al. (2007). "Impact of fire suppression on aspen populations". Forestry and Wildlife Management. 19 (3): 54–57.
^ Pelz, Kristen A.; Smith, Frederick W. (July 2013). "How will aspen respond to mountain pine beetle? A review of literature and discussion of knowledge gaps". Forest Ecology and Management. 299: 60–69. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2013.01.008.
^ Kelley, Katie (26 September 2006). "Emblem of the West Is Dying, and No One Can Figure Out Why". The New York Times.
^ "S.B. 41 State Tree Change". Utah State Legislature.

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Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary

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Populus tremuloides is a deciduous tree native to cooler areas of North America, one of several species referred to by the common name aspen. It is commonly called quaking aspen, trembling aspen, American aspen, mountain or golden aspen, trembling poplar, white poplar, and popple, as well as others. The trees have tall trunks, up to 25 meters (82 feet) tall, with smooth pale bark, scarred with black. The glossy green leaves, dull beneath, become golden to yellow, rarely red, in autumn. The species often propagates through its roots to form large clonal groves originating from a shared root system. These roots are not rhizomes, as new growth develops from adventitious buds on the parent root system (the ortet).

Populus tremuloides is the most widely distributed tree in North America, being found from Canada to central Mexico. It is the defining species of the aspen parkland biome in the Prairie Provinces of Canada and extreme northwest Minnesota.

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Ŝajntremola poplo ( Esperanto )

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La ŝajntremola poplo (Populus tremuloides) aŭ amerika ŝajntremola poblo estas decidua arbo indiĝena en la pli malvarmetaj areoj de Nordameriko, unu el pluraj specioj kiuj angle estas nomataj aspen, tremolecaj poploj ^[1] ^[2] ^[3] kun multaj diferencaj lokaj nomoj kiuj ofte referencas al iliaj folioj kiuj flugetas en la brizo. La arboj havas altajn trunkojn, ĝis 25 metrojn, kun glata pala ŝelo, nigre cikatrigita. La brilaj verdaj folioj, nebrilaj malsupre, iĝas oraj al flavaj, malofte ruĝaj, en aŭtuno. La specio ofte disvastiĝas per siaj radikoj por konstitui grandajn arbarerojn.

La ŝajntremola poplo estas la plej vaste disvastiĝita arbo en Nordameriko, trovebla ekde Kanado al Meksiko^[4]. Ĝi estas la nomdonanta specio de la biomo "ŝajntremol-popla duonarbaro" (aspen parkland) en la Prerio-Provincoj de Kanado.

Enhavo

1 Nomo
2 Priskribo
3 Disvastiĝo
4 Ekologio
- 4.1 Mortiĝado
5 Uzado
6 Referencoj
7 Bibliografio
8 Eksteraj ligiloj

Nomo

La tremetado aŭ vibrado de la folioj kiu estas reflektita en la lokaj nomoj (quaking aspen, trembling aspen, trembling poplar k.t.p.) estas kaŭzita de la flekseblaj platigitaj petioloj. La specia epiteto tremuloides signifas "simila al tremolo (Populus tremula)". Aliaj poplospecioj havas petiolojn kiuj estas parte platigitaj, dum la tremolecaj poploj havas petiolojn kiuj estas flanke platpremitaj laŭ la tuta longo de la petiolo.

Priskribo

Ŝajntremolaj poploj ĉe la bazo de Marun-Montoj, Elk-Montaro, Koloradio.

Ĝi estas rapide kreskanta arbo, kiu kutime altas 20-25 metrojn ĉe matureco, kaj havas trunkodiametron de 20-80 centimetroj. La arboŝelo estas relative glata kaj verdete blanka al grizo kaj estas markita per dikaj nigraj horizontalaj cikatroj kaj elstaraj nigraj nodoj. La folioj ĉe maturaj arboj estas preskaŭ rondaj, diametras 4-8 centimetrojn kaj havas malgrandajn rondetajn dentojn. La petiolo longas 3-7 centimetrojn kaj estas platigita. Junaj arboj (inkluzive de draĵoj) havas multe pli grandajn - 10-20 centimetrojn - preskaŭ triangulajn foliojn.

La floroj estas amentoj kiuj longas 4-6 centimetrojn, produktitaj fruprintempe antaŭ la folioj; ili estas dioikaj, kun masklaj kaj femalaj amentoj sur malsamaj arboj. La frukto longas 10 centimetrojn kaj konstituas pendantan ŝnuron de kapsuloj (de 6 mm), ĉiu kapsulo enhavanta proksimume 10 da etaj semoj kiuj troviĝas en vateca-lanuga teksaĵo, kiu helpas ventdisvastiĝon de la semoj kiam ili somerkomence estas maturaj.

Disvastiĝo

Ŝajntremola poplo ĉe sunsubiro.

La norda limo de tiu nearktisa specio estas limigita per ĝia maltoleremo de permafrosto. Ĝi troviĝas en tuta Kanado en ĉiuj provincoj kaj teritorioj, kun ebla escepto de tiu de Nunavuto. En Usono, ĝi povas esti trovata tiel for norde kiel la sudaj deklivoj de Bruks-Montaro en Alasko, kaj ĝi okazas ĉe malaltaj altitudoj tiel for sude kiel norda Nebrasko kaj centra Indiano. En okcidenta Usono, tiu arbo malofte postvivas ĉe altecoj sub la nivelo de 460 m pro la mildaj vintroj travivitaj sub tiu altitudo, kaj estas ĝenerale trovitaj ĉe 1 500-3 700 m. Ĝi vegetas ĉe altaj altitudoj tiel for sude kiel Gvanaĥŭato, Meksiko.

Arbed-similaj nanoklonoj ekzistas en marĝenaj medioj tro malvarmaj kaj sekaj por esti gastemaj por plenmezuraj arboj, ekzemple ĉe la supraj altitudoj de Blanka Montaro, Kalifornio.

La ŝajntremola poplo troviĝas interalie en jenaj ekoregionoj : la arbaroj de Frejzer-Altebenaĵo kaj Frejzer-Baseno, la arizonaj montarbaroj, la grand-basenaj montarbaroj, la kaskad-montaraj leaj arbaroj, la koloradiaj rokmontaraj arbaroj, la nord-kordileraj arbaroj kaj la novanglaj-akadiaj arbaroj.

Ekologio

Aŭtune individu-klonaj kolonioj estas distingeblaj, kiel viditaj sur tiu montoflanko en Matanuska-Valo, Alasko.

Ĝi primare reproduktiĝas per draĵoj, kaj vastaj klonaj kolonioj estas komunaj. Ĉiu kolonio estas sia klono, kaj ĉiuj arboj en la klono havas identajn karakterizojn kaj samhavas ununuran radikostrukturon. Klono aŭtune povas koloriĝi pli frue aŭ pli malfrue ol siaj najbaraj ŝajntremol-poplaj klonoj. La aŭtunokoloroj estas kutime brilaj tonoj de flavo; en kelkaj areoj, ruĝaj koloroj povas esti foje viditaj. Ĉar ĉiuj arboj en antaŭe fiksita klona kolonio estas konsiderita parto de la sama organismo, unuklona kolonio, nomita "Pando", estas konsiderita la plej peza ^[5] kaj la plej maljuna ^[1] vivanta organismo kun ses milionoj da kilogramoj kaj ĉirkaŭ 80 000 da jaroj.

Ŝajntremola poplo produktas semojn, sed malofte estiĝas de ili. Polenado estas inhibiciita per la fakto ke la arboj estas aŭ masklaj aŭ femalaj, kaj grandaj arbareroj kutime konsistas el klonoj de la sama sekso. Eĉ post polenado, la malgrandaj semoj (je funto po tri milionoj), la plantidoj postvivas nur mallongtempe ĉar al ili mankas stokitan nutraĵfonton aŭ protektan tegaĵon ^[6].

La folioj de la ŝajntremola poplo kaj de alioj specioj en la genro poplo servas kiel nutraĵon por la raŭpoj de diversaj papilioj.

Mortiĝado

En la komenco de 1996, individuaj nordamerikaj sciencistoj rimarkis pliiĝon de mortiĝado de ŝajntremola poplo. Ĉar tiu akcelis en 2004, la fenomeno estis pridiskutita kaj debato pri la kialoj komenciĝis. Neniu insekto, malsano, aŭ medicirkonstanco ankoraŭ estas specife identigitaj kiel komuna kaŭzo. Arboj najbaraj al alia ofte estas trafitaj aŭ ne. En aliaj kazoj tutaj arbareroj mortis.

Tipa arboŝelo de ŝajntremola poplo.

Multaj areoj de okcidenta Usono travivis pliigitajn mortiĝadojn kiuj ofte estas atribuitaj al hufula paŝtado kaj arbarofajrosubpremado. Ĉe altaj altitudoj kie gresoj povas esti maloftaj, hufuloj povas foliumi junajn ŝajntremol-poplajn ĝermojn kaj malhelpi tiujn arbidojn de atingi la maturecon. Kiel rezulto, kelkaj ŝajntremol-poplaj arbareroj submetitaj al brutaro aŭ aliaj herbovoruloj, kiel ekzemple cervoj aŭ alko, havas tre malmultajn junajn arbojn kaj povas esti invaditaj de koniferoj, kiuj ne estas tipe foliumitaj. Alia ebla malhelpo al ŝajntremol-popla regenerado estas ĝeneraligita arbarofajrosubpremado. Ŝajntremolaj poploj facile povas vegetative reproduktiĝi kaj eĉ se la supertera parto de la organismo povas morti en arbara incendio, la radikoj, kiuj ofte estas protektitaj de mortigaj temperaturoj dum la incendio, burĝoniĝos al novaj arboj baldaŭ post fajro. Perturboj kiel ekzemple incendioj ŝajnas esti necesa ekologia okazaĵo por la ŝajntremola poplo por konkuri kontraŭ la koniferoj kiuj emas anstataŭigi ilin en la malĉeesto de longdaŭraj senperturbaj periodoj. La nuna mortiĝado en la amerika Okcidento povas esti kaŭzita de la strikta fajrosubpremadopolitiko en Usono.

Pro la vegetativa regeneradometodo utiligita de la ŝajntremola poplo, kie tuta grupo de arboj estas esence klonoj, ekzistas eblecon ke io kio frapas unu arbon poste mortigos ĉiujn, supozante ke ili samhavas la saman vundeblecon. Konferenco estis aranĝita en Utaho en septembro 2006 por interkonsiliĝi kaj pripensi enketeman metodaron ^[7].

Uzado

Aŭtunaj folioj.

La ŝelo de ŝajntremola poplo enhavas substancon kiu estis ekstraktita fare de indianoj kaj de pioniroj de la nordamerika Okcidento kiel kinino-anstataŭaĵo ^[6]. Kiel la aliaj poploj, ŝajntremola poplo produktas maltaŭgan brullignon, ĉar la ligno malrapide sekiĝas, rapide putriĝas, kaj ne liveras multe da varmo. Tamen ĝi estas ankoraŭ vaste uzata en kampadejoj ĉar ĝi estas malmultekosta kaj abunda kaj ne ĝenerale uzata por konstruligno. Pioniroj en la nordamerika Okcidento uzis ĝin por konstrui blokhaŭsojn kaj kavodometojn, kvankam ĝi ne estis la preferata specio.

En Kanado, ĝi estas uzita plejparte por fibroligno ^[8] -produktoj kiel ekzemple libroj, gazetoj, kaj bona printadopapero. Ŝantremola poplo estas aparte bona por paneloproduktoj kiel ekzemple OSB-aglomerplatoj (aglomerplatoj de grandaj orientitaj ligneroj). Ĝia ligno estas malpeza kaj estas uzitaj por meblaro, lignaj skatoloj, centra parto en tavolligno, kaj muropaneloj.

Kaŭze de nedaŭrebla arbarekspluatado por brulligno, konstruado, kaj fibroligno, kaj de senarbarigo por agrikulturo, la arealo de la specio draste malpligrandiĝis en la 19-a kaj 20-a jarcentoj.

Referencoj

↑ ^1,0 ^1,1 angle Quaking Aspen by the Bryce Canyon National Park Service
↑ angle USDA GRIN taxonomy.
↑ angle technology transfer fact sheet: Populus spp.. Forest Products Laboratory: R&D USDA. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Center for Wood Anatomy Research. Alirita 20 September 2010.
↑ angle Aspen, Quaking (Populus tremuloides). Arbor Day Foundation.
↑ angle Genetic Variation and the Natural History of Quaking Aspen, Jeffry B. Mitton; Michael C. Grant, BioScience, Vol. 46, No. 1. (Jan., 1996), pp. 25-31.
↑ ^6,0 ^6,1 angle Ewing, Susan 1996 : The Great Alaska Nature Factbook, Alaska Northwest Books, Portland.
↑ angle Kelley, Katie, "Emblem of the West Is Dying, and No One Can Figure Out Why", The New York Times, 26 September 2006.
↑ Lexicon Silvestre 2009, nocio 977

Bibliografio

Portalo pri Biologio

angle Farrar, John Laird 1995 : Trees In Canada. Fitzhenry and Whiteside.

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Ŝajntremola poplo: Brief Summary ( Esperanto )

provided by wikipedia EO

La ŝajntremola poplo (Populus tremuloides) aŭ amerika ŝajntremola poblo estas decidua arbo indiĝena en la pli malvarmetaj areoj de Nordameriko, unu el pluraj specioj kiuj angle estas nomataj aspen, tremolecaj poploj kun multaj diferencaj lokaj nomoj kiuj ofte referencas al iliaj folioj kiuj flugetas en la brizo. La arboj havas altajn trunkojn, ĝis 25 metrojn, kun glata pala ŝelo, nigre cikatrigita. La brilaj verdaj folioj, nebrilaj malsupre, iĝas oraj al flavaj, malofte ruĝaj, en aŭtuno. La specio ofte disvastiĝas per siaj radikoj por konstitui grandajn arbarerojn.

La ŝajntremola poplo estas la plej vaste disvastiĝita arbo en Nordameriko, trovebla ekde Kanado al Meksiko. Ĝi estas la nomdonanta specio de la biomo "ŝajntremol-popla duonarbaro" (aspen parkland) en la Prerio-Provincoj de Kanado.

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Populus tremuloides ( Spanish; Castilian )

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El álamo temblón (Populus tremuloides^[1]), llamado como el Populus tremula europeo, es un árbol caducifolio perteneciente a la familia de las salicáceas. Alcanza hasta 35 m de alto. Su corteza es gris oscuro con surcos. Sus ramas son de color marrón rojizo. Sus hojas son caducas y son redondeadas con dientes en los márgenes y con glándulas resinosas no muy evidentes, en el envés son ligeramente blancas. Las flores son pequeñas y crecen en estructuras alargadas denominadas amentos. Habitan desde el nivel del mar hasta los casi 4000 metros de altitud, desde América del Norte hasta el Norte del Valle de México. ^[2]

Ilustración

Vista de un ejemplar adulto

En su hábitat en invierno

En su hábitat

Índice

1 Distribución y hábitat
2 Descripción
- 2.1 Decesos
3 Taxonomía
4 Referencias
5 Bibliografía
6 Enlaces externos

Distribución y hábitat

Es nativo de las áreas menos templadas de Norteamérica, con el límite norteño determinado por su intolerancia al permafrost. En Canadá se puede encontrar en todas las provincias y territorios, con la posible excepción de Nunavut. En EE. UU. aparece a bajas altitudes en regiones tan al sur como el norte de Nebraska e Indiana central. Más al oeste, crece a altitudes más elevadas en latitudes tan al sur como Guanajuato, México. En el oeste de EE. UU., este árbol raramente sobrevive a altitudes inferiores a 350 metros sobre el nivel del mar (msnm), debido a inviernos medios experimentados por debajo de dicha altitud. Generalmente se lo encuentra entre 1250 y 3000 msnm.

El apelativo tremuloides hace referencia al estremecimiento o temblor de sus hojas, aun con la más leve brisa, debido a los achatados peciolos. Otras especies de Populus tienen peciolos achatados parcialmente a lo largo de su longitud, mientras el álamo temblón lo tiene achatado de lado a lado a lo largo de toda la longitud de los peciolos. Ese temblor de las hojas produce un sonido suave, que muchos consideran un sello de identidad de esta especie.

Descripción

Es un árbol mediano, usualmente 20-25 m de adulto, con un tronco de 2-8 dm de diámetro; registros máximos midieron 37 m de altura y 14 dm de diámetro. Las hojas de los adultos son cercanamente redondeadas, 4-8 cm de diámetro con pequeños escotaduras redondeadas, 3-7 cm de longitud, peciolos achatados. Los árboles jóvenes los tienen mucho más largos (1-2 dm de long.), pareciendo hojas triangulares. Las flores tienen amentos de 4-6 cm de long, producidas temprano en la primavera antes que las hojas; es un árbol diclino dioico, con las flores masculinas y femeninas en diferentes árboles. El fruto son cápsulas de 1 dm de longitud, pendulares con un pedúnculo de 6 mm, cada cápsula contiene cerca de diez diminutas semillas embebidas en pelusa algodonosa, ayudando a la dispersión eólica luego de madurar a principios del verano.

Existen clones arbustivos enanos en ambientes marginales demasiado fríos y secos para albergar a los árboles grandes; por ejemplo, a elevaciones superiores limitantes en las Montañas Blancas, California.

Se propaga tanto por semillas como brotes de raíces, y el uso extensivo de colonias clonales es común. Cada colonia proviene de una madre, lográndose que todos sus árboles tengan idénticas características, y compartan la estructura radicular. Un clon puede poseer un color que toma más temprano o más tarde en el verano que sus vecinos distintos clones. Los tonos del verano usualmente oscilan en los amarillentos brillantes; en algunas áreas, los rojizos fuertes se ven ocasionalmente.

Como todos los fustes de una colonia clonal son parte de un mismo organismo, la colonia clonal Pando, es considerado el organismo viviente más grande^[3] y más viejo,^[4] de 6.000 t de masa y aproximadamente 80.000 años de antigüedad.

Las hojas del álamo temblón son alimento de gusanos de varias especies de lepidópteros. Véase Listado de lepidópteros que se alimentan de álamos (en inglés).

Decesos

Hacia 1996, expertos estadounidenses notaron un incremento en el número de ejemplares muertos o agonizantes de esta especie. Dado que dicho incremento se fue acelerando, el debate sobre sus causas continuaba aún en 2004. No aparecían insectos, enfermedades o condiciones ambientales que específicamente identificaran la(s) causa(s). Ya hallaron árboles vivos adyacentes a uno muerto, o arboledas enteras o parciales muertas.

Muchas áreas del oeste de EE. UU. han experimentado un incremento en la mortalidad, frecuentemente atribuido al pastoreo excesivo por parte del ganado. En terrenos altos, donde los pastos pueden ser escasos y raros, el ganado devora los nuevos brotes de álamo temblón, impidiendo que lleguen a la madurez. En esos casos, el ganado pone en serio peligro la salud de la plantación. Como resultado, algunas alamedas situadas en la proximidad de la zona de pastoreo se ven invadidas por coníferas, que el ganado no apetece. Al final, los árboles de coníferas compiten con los álamos debido a que éstos no pueden reproducirse por la falta de nuevos brotes. También las hierbas colonizan dichos terrenos.

Debido a que el mecanismo de regeneración vegetativa para reproducirse usado por los álamos es esencialmente clonal, presumiblemente comparten las mismas vulnerabilidades: la debilidad de uno es la de todo el grupo y, finalmente, la causa de la muerte de todos. Y comparten la floración conjunta, el brote de las hojas es simultáneo, etc en cada grupo parental. En una conferencia en Utah, en septiembre de 2006, se compartieron experiencias y futuras metodologías de investigación.

Resulta oportuno destacar la resistencia del álamo temblón al fuego. He aquí su estrategia. Sus raíces producen brotes de árboles nuevos hasta a 80 m. de distancia. Si el fuego ocurre en invierno, la capa helada preserva a las raíces que vuelven a brotar. Y lo hacen muy rápidamente pues parten de un respaldo radicular ya establecido. Lo mismo ocurre en primavera ya que el suelo está encharcado. Por tanto el fuego favorece la preeminencia de esta especie frente a las coníferas. En cambio si el incendio se produce en verano, todos perecen.^[5]

[1].

Taxonomía

Populus tremuloides fue descrita por André Michaux y publicado en Flora Boreali-Americana 2: 243. 1803.^[6]

Sinonimia

Populus aurea Tidestr.
Populus cercidiphylla Britt.
Populus polygonifolia Bernard
Populus tremula subsp. tremuloides (Michx.) Á.Löve & D.Löve
Populus tremuloides var. aurea (Tidestr.) Daniels
Populus tremuloides var. cercidiphylla (Britt.) Sudw.
Populus tremuloides var. intermedia Vict.
Populus tremuloides var. magnifica Vict.
Populus tremuloides var. rhomboidea Vict.
Populus tremuloides var. vancouveriana (Trel.) Sarg.
Populus vancouveriana Trel.
[2]

Referencias

↑ «Populus tremuloides». Consultado el 17 de marzo de 2020.
↑ Carranza G., Eleazar (1995). «Salicaceae». Flora del Bajío y de regiones adyacentes (37): Pág. 2-5.
↑ Genetic Variation and the Natural History of Quaking Aspen, Jeffry B. Mitton; Michael C. Grant, BioScience, Vol. 46, No. 1. (Jan., 1996), pp. 25-31.
↑ Quaking Aspen by the Bryce Canyon National Park Service
↑ The Secret Life of Trees, Colin Tudge. Penguin Books. London 2005. Pág. 307
↑ «Populus tremuloides». Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. Consultado el 16 de julio de 2014.

Bibliografía

Farrar, John Laird. Árboles de Canadá. Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1995
Hickman, James C., ed. Manual Jepson: Plantas Superiores de California, 0520082559. Universidad de California Press, 1993.

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Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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El álamo temblón (Populus tremuloides), llamado como el Populus tremula europeo, es un árbol caducifolio perteneciente a la familia de las salicáceas. Alcanza hasta 35 m de alto. Su corteza es gris oscuro con surcos. Sus ramas son de color marrón rojizo. Sus hojas son caducas y son redondeadas con dientes en los márgenes y con glándulas resinosas no muy evidentes, en el envés son ligeramente blancas. Las flores son pequeñas y crecen en estructuras alargadas denominadas amentos. Habitan desde el nivel del mar hasta los casi 4000 metros de altitud, desde América del Norte hasta el Norte del Valle de México.

Ilustración

Vista de un ejemplar adulto

En su hábitat en invierno

En su hábitat

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Ameerika haab ( Estonian )

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Ameerika haab (Populus tremuloides) on papli perekonda kuuluv puuliik.

Vaata ka

hübriidhaab

Välislingid

Ameerika haab andmebaasis eElurikkus

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Ameerika haab: Brief Summary ( Estonian )

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Ameerika haab (Populus tremuloides) on papli perekonda kuuluv puuliik.

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Amerikanhaapa ( Finnish )

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Amerikanhaapa (Populus tremuloides) on lehtipuu, joka kuuluu haapojen ja poppelien sukuun. Sitä tavataan suuressa osassa Pohjois-Amerikkaa.

Amerikanhaapa muistuttaa hyvin paljon Euroopassa kasvavaa metsähaapaa (Populus tremula), mutta runko on vaalenharmaa tai valkoinen. Eri maanosien haapalajit myös risteytyvät keskenään. Risteymä tunnetaan nimellä hybridihaapa (Populus x wettsteinii).

Kuten metsähaavan, myös amerikanhaavan juurakko voi olla jopa tuhansia vuosia vanha. Kun vanhat rungot kuolevat, juurakosta nousee esiin uusia. Haavat selviytyvätkin metsäpaloista hyvin, sillä liekit ja niiden kuumuus eivät yllä maanalaisiin osiin. Näin haavat muodostavat jatkuvasti kasvavia yhdyskuntia, jotka saattavat peittää jopa useiden hehtaarien alan. Utahissa on eräs yhdyskunta, jonka väitetään olevan 80 000 vuotta vanha.^[2]^[3]

Lähteet

↑ ITIS: Populus tremuloides (englanniksi)
↑ Biogeography of Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides) San Francisco State University Department of Geography
↑ http://www.nps.gov/brca/naturescience/quakingaspen.htm

Aiheesta muualla

Tämä kasveihin liittyvä artikkeli on tynkä. Voit auttaa Wikipediaa laajentamalla artikkelia.

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Amerikanhaapa: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

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Amerikanhaapa (Populus tremuloides) on lehtipuu, joka kuuluu haapojen ja poppelien sukuun. Sitä tavataan suuressa osassa Pohjois-Amerikkaa.

Amerikanhaapa muistuttaa hyvin paljon Euroopassa kasvavaa metsähaapaa (Populus tremula), mutta runko on vaalenharmaa tai valkoinen. Eri maanosien haapalajit myös risteytyvät keskenään. Risteymä tunnetaan nimellä hybridihaapa (Populus x wettsteinii).

Kuten metsähaavan, myös amerikanhaavan juurakko voi olla jopa tuhansia vuosia vanha. Kun vanhat rungot kuolevat, juurakosta nousee esiin uusia. Haavat selviytyvätkin metsäpaloista hyvin, sillä liekit ja niiden kuumuus eivät yllä maanalaisiin osiin. Näin haavat muodostavat jatkuvasti kasvavia yhdyskuntia, jotka saattavat peittää jopa useiden hehtaarien alan. Utahissa on eräs yhdyskunta, jonka väitetään olevan 80 000 vuotta vanha.

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Peuplier faux-tremble ( French )

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Populus tremuloides

Le peuplier faux-tremble (Populus tremuloides) est une espèce d'arbres à feuilles caduques de la famille des salicacées. Il est natif des régions les plus froides de l'Amérique du Nord, avec une limite déterminée par son intolérance au pergélisol. Il est présent dans tout le Canada.

Sommaire

1 Description
2 Répartition et habitat
3 Rôle écologique
4 Systématique
- 4.1 Nomenclature et étymologie
5 Utilisations
6 Voir aussi
7 Notes et références
8 Annexes
- 8.1 Bibliographie
- 8.2 Liens externes

Description

Le Peuplier faux-tremble est un arbre de taille moyenne atteignant 25 m de hauteur^[1]. Son tronc est droit, long et dépourvu de branches sur la majeure partie de sa longueur, d'un diamètre moyen de 40 cm à sa base^[2]. Sa cime est courte et arrondie^[1]. Ses racines sont superficielles et très étalées^[1].

Son écorce est lisse, d'apparence cireuse, d'une couleur vert pâle sur les tiges les plus jeunes à une couleur vert gris et marquée de nombreux traits horizontaux chez les jeunes arbres^[2]. L'écorce s'assombrit et devient plus écaillée avec l'âge^[2].

Feuilles du peuplier faux-tremble

Ses feuilles sont simples et alternes. Elles sont de forme ovale et ont une dimension allant de trois à sept centimètres de longueur^[2]. Elles ont de 20 à 30 petites dents sur leur bord^[2]. La face supérieure de la feuille est vert foncé et le dessous plus jaunâtre^[2]. Le pétiole est aplati, grêle et généralement plus long que le limbe^[1]. Les feuilles s'agitent à la moindre brise ce qui donne l'impression que tout le feuillage « tremble »^[2]. La feuillaison de l'arbre est de sept à dix jours plus précoce que celle du peuplier à grandes dents (Populus grandidentata)^[1].

Sa floraison est printanière et a lieu avant l'apparition des feuilles. Elle est composée de chatons mâles et femelles pendants^[2]. Le chaton femelle, d'une longueur de 10 cm est composé de capsules coniques, étroites et glabres. Chaque capsule mesure de cinq à sept millimètres de longueur et renferme une dizaine de graines^[1].
L'automne, ses feuilles prennent une teinte dorée, puis virent au gris jaunâtre avant de tomber.

Répartition et habitat

Répartition

Carte de répartition de Populus tremuloides

Le Peuplier faux-tremble est l'un des arbres les plus répandus d'Amérique du Nord^[1], l'un des rares arbres angiospermes à feuillage décidu dont l'aire de répartition s'étend de l'Atlantique au Pacifique^[3], et ce de manière continue. Dans l'axe nord-sud, l'espèce est présente depuis le cercle polaire arctique jusqu'au nord de la vallée de Mexico^[4]. Cependant les populations les plus méridionales, qui sont des reliques des glaciations du Pléistocène^[4], deviennent très fragmentées.

Habitat

Au regard des processus de dynamique forestière, le peuplier faux-tremble fait partie des espèces pionnières^[5]. Il est ainsi capable de coloniser en pleine lumière des sites perturbés, comme des terres agricoles abandonnées, des zones incendiées ou des parterres de coupes de bois^[6], et d'y pousser rapidement en peuplements purs. À l'inverse, il est intolérant à l'ombre^[2].

C'est un arbre qui peut occuper une grande variété de sols différents, mais ce sont les sols bien drainés et à texture fine qui lui conviennent le mieux^[6].

On le rencontre souvent en populations pures, surtout quand celles-ci sont jeunes^[1]. Il peut aussi se trouver associé à d'autres essences, comme l'épinette blanche (Picea glauca), l'épinette noire (Picea mariana), le bouleau à papier (Betula papyrifera), le peuplier baumier (Populus balsamifera) et le pin gris (Pinus banksiana)^[1].

Clones naturels

Il se propage soit grâce à ses graines, soit par extension de ses racines, et les grandes colonies clonales sont communes. Chaque colonie composée de centaines ou de milliers d'arbres provient du même organisme, et tous les arbres de la colonies sont identiques au niveau de leurs caractéristiques et partagent le même réseau de racines. Comme tous les arbres d'une même colonie sont considérés comme faisant partie du même organisme, une colonie clonale nommée Pando, est considérée comme l'organisme vivant le plus lourd^[7] et le plus âgé^[8] de la planète, avec une masse estimée de 6 000 tonnes, et un âge de 80 000 ans.

Rôle écologique

Plus de 500 espèces de chenilles de Lépidoptères peuvent se nourrir des feuilles de ce peuplier^[9]. C'est un arbre important pour la faune en général. Son écorce et ses feuilles comptent parmi les aliments préféré du Castor du Canada (Castor canadensis) et fait aussi partie du régime alimentaire du Porc-épic d'Amérique (Erethizon dorsatum) de l'élan et de plusieurs espèces de Cervidés^[6].

Cet arbre se défend toutefois contre les prédateurs qui ont co-évolué avec lui, en sécrétant des tanins et par diverses stratégies biochimiques adaptées aux vertébrés et invertébrés herbivores^[10]. Comme tous les feuillus poussant au bord de l'eau (saule, aulne...) et ayant évolué avec les castors depuis des millions d'années, il recèpe par ailleurs facilement quand il a été coupé.

Systématique

Nomenclature et étymologie

"Tremblement" des feuilles du peuplier faux-tremble

Cette espèce a été décrite pour la première fois sous le nom Populus tremuloides par André Michaux, botaniste et explorateur français, en 1803 dans son ouvrage Flora boreali- Americana^[11].

Le peuplier faux-tremble est aussi connu sous le nom de « tremble » en Amérique du Nord^[1].

Le genre « Populus » provient du nom en latin classique du peuplier. Il dérive probablement de paipallo (vibrer ou trembler) ou de arbor populi (arbre du peuple) surnom provenant du fait qu'il était utilisé pour décorer les places publique à Rome^[12]. Quant au spécifique « tremuloides », il signifie littéralement « ayant tendance à trembler », du latin tremulus (trembler) et du grec eides (aspect, forme)^[13]. Cela fait référence au fait que, sous l'action du vent, les feuilles oscillent de part et d'autre de l'axe formé par leur pétiole aplati et leur nervure centrale. Cependant, dans le sens plus traditionnel à la botanique, il est généralement admis que son nom fait référence à sa ressemblance au peuplier tremble^[14].

La précision "faux"-tremble vient du fait que cette espèce est différente du peuplier tremble (Populus tremula), dont les feuilles ont le même comportement sous l'action du vent, mais qui vit en Eurasie.

En 1975, Áskell Löve et Doris Benta Maria Löve proposèrent de considérer cette espèce comme une sous-espèce de Populus tremula, sous le nom Populus tremula subsp. tremuloides (Michx.) Á. Löve & D. Löve, mais cette proposition n'a pas été retenue^[15].

Utilisations

Les Amérindiens mélangeaient son écorce pulvérisée avec du sucre pour en faire un vermifuge^[6].

Le bois du peuplier faux-tremble est l'un des plus tendres des feuillus d'Amérique du Nord^[16]. Plusieurs conifères, comme le pin gris (Pinus banksiana), le mélèze laricin (Larix laricina) ou l'épinette noire (Picea mariana) ont des bois plus denses que le peuplier^[16]. Parmi les autres espèces de feuillus de l'Est de l'Amérique du Nord, seul le tilleul d'Amérique (Tilia americana) présente une résistance en flexion et un module d'élasticité moindre^[16]. Son bois est facile à travailler, il présente une excellente qualité au perçage avec point de centrage, au tournage, au façonnage et au mortaisage^[16]. Son seul grand défaut est qu'il ne se ponce pas^[16].

Son bois tendre est l'un des plus utilisés dans l'industrie des pâtes et papiers^[17].

Voir aussi

Notes et références

↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i et j} Farrar 1996, p. 346-347
↑ ^{a b c d e f g h et i} Leboeuf 2007, p. 140
↑ Ressources naturelles Canada Peuplier (Populus spp.)
↑ ^{a et b} (en) Flora of North America Association, « Populus tremuloides », sur Flora of North America (consulté le 16 décembre 2010)
↑ Parcs Canada : Lieu historique national du Canada du Canal-de-Saint-Ours
↑ ^{a b c et d} Douville, Dupuis et Boudreault 2008, p. 2
↑ Genetic Variation and the Natural History of Quaking Aspen, Jeffry B. Mitton; Michael C. Grant, BioScience, Vol. 46, No. 1. (Jan., 1996), pp. 25-31.
↑ Quaking Aspen by the Bryce Canyon National Park Service
↑ « HOSTS - a Database of the World's Lepidopteran Hostplants », sur http://www.nhm.ac.uk, The Natural History Museum, London, 2007 (consulté le 17 décembre 2010)
↑ Jenkins, S. H. and Miller, G. C. (1990). « Food selection by beavers in relation to inducible defenses of Populus tremuloides ». - Oikos 59: 5742
↑ (la) André Michaux, Flora boreali- Americana : sistens caracteres plantarum quas in America Septentrionali collegit et detexit, vol. 2, Paris, Bibliopola Jouanaux junior, 1820, Nouvelle édition éd., 340 p. (lire en ligne), p. 243
↑ Farrar 1996, p. 479
↑ Farrar 1996, p. 481
↑ (en) « Glossary of Botanical Names », sur Gardenology.org - Plant & Garden Wiki Encyclopedia (consulté le 19 décembre 2010)
↑ « Populus tremula subsp. tremuloides (Michx.) Á. Löve & D. Löve », sur http://www.tropicos.org, Missouri Botanical Garden (consulté le 17 décembre 2010)
↑ ^{a b c d et e} Douville, Dupuis et Boudreault 2008, p. 4
↑ (en) United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Plant guide : Quaking Aspen

Annexes

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Peuplier faux-tremble: Brief Summary ( French )

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Populus tremuloides

Le peuplier faux-tremble (Populus tremuloides) est une espèce d'arbres à feuilles caduques de la famille des salicacées. Il est natif des régions les plus froides de l'Amérique du Nord, avec une limite déterminée par son intolérance au pergélisol. Il est présent dans tout le Canada.

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Nöturösp ( Icelandic )

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Nöturösp (populus tremuloides) er aspartegund sem útbreidd er um allt barrskógabeltið í Norður-Ameríku, frá Nýfundnalandi í austri til Beringshafs í vestri og suður til Mexíkó og er þar með útbreiddasta tré álfunnar. Hún er á margan hátt lík blæösp og hafa ýmsir blendingar tegundanna verið ræktaðir saman með góðum árangri. Nöturösp getur verið allt að 25 metra há og getur fjölgað sér með rótarskotum.

Vapítihjörtur er meðal dýra sem naga börk trésins. Tréð er fylkistré Utah en þar er stærsta klónasamfélag nöturaspar sem fundist hefur (Pando).

Á Íslandi

Jón Rögnvaldsson flutti fyrst inn nöturösp frá Kanada á millistríðsárunum. Nöturöspin gerir kröfur um stöðugt loftslag að vetrarlagi og virðist illa þola umhleypingarnar sem eru hér á landi á veturna. ^[1] Blæasparbróðir (Populus tremula x tremuloides), blendingur blæaspar og nöturaspar hefur verið notaður á Íslandi. ^[2]

Tilvísanir

↑ Getið þið sagt mér allt sem þið vitið um aspir? Vísindavefur, skoðað 21. nóv. 2016.
↑ Aspartegundir Skógrækt ríkisins. Skoðað 21. nóv. 2016.

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Nöturösp

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Nöturösp

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Nöturösp: Brief Summary ( Icelandic )

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Nöturösp (populus tremuloides) er aspartegund sem útbreidd er um allt barrskógabeltið í Norður-Ameríku, frá Nýfundnalandi í austri til Beringshafs í vestri og suður til Mexíkó og er þar með útbreiddasta tré álfunnar. Hún er á margan hátt lík blæösp og hafa ýmsir blendingar tegundanna verið ræktaðir saman með góðum árangri. Nöturösp getur verið allt að 25 metra há og getur fjölgað sér með rótarskotum.

Vapítihjörtur er meðal dýra sem naga börk trésins. Tréð er fylkistré Utah en þar er stærsta klónasamfélag nöturaspar sem fundist hefur (Pando).

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Populus tremuloides ( Italian )

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Populus tremuloides Michx., 1753 è una pianta della famiglia delle Salicacee, diffusa in Nord America.

Può raggiungere i 35 m di altezza. È l'unica angiosperma caducifoglia ad estendersi per il vasto areale compreso tra l'Atlantico e il Pacifico.

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Amerikaanse ratelpopulier ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De Amerikaanse ratelpopulier (Populus tremuloides) is een plant uit de wilgenfamilie (Salicaceae). Het is een loofboom die van nature voorkomt in de koelere regionen van Noord-Amerika. De bomen kunnen hoogtes bereiken van 25 meter. De schors is bleek van kleur met zwarte littekens. De glanzende groene bijna ronde bladeren, worden goudgeel tot geel, zelden rood, in de herfst. De soort plant zich vaak voort door vanuit zijn wortels nieuw opschot te vormen.

De bloemen van de Amerikaanse ratelpopulieren zijn katjes van ongeveer 4 à 6 cm. Zij komen in de vroege lente, nog voor de bladeren, tevoorschijn. De vrucht is een ongeveer 10 cm hangende reeks van 6 mm grote capsules. Elke capsule bevat ongeveer tien zaden ingebed in donzige pluisjes, wat de windverspreiding van de zaden helpt als ze in de vroege zomer rijp zijn.

Inhoud

1 Verspreiding
2 Achteruitgang
3 Gebruik
4 Afbeeldingen

Verspreiding

De Amerikaanse ratelpopulier groeit in een brede range van klimatologische omstandigheden. De gemiddelde temperaturen in januari en juli variëren van -30 °C en 16 °C in centraal Alaska en tussen -3 °C en 23 °C in Fort Wayne (Indiana). De gemiddelde jaarlijkse neerslag varieert van 1020 mm in Gander in de staat Newfoundland en Labrador tot slechts 180 mm in centraal Alaska. De zuidelijke grens van het verspreidingsgebied volgt ruwweg de 24 °C gemiddelde juli isotherm.^[1]

Struikachtige vormen van de Amerikaanse ratelpopulier kunnen worden aangetroffen in marginale gebieden die te koud en droog zijn om ze te laten uitgroeien tot grote bomen, bijvoorbeeld op de berghellingen van de White Mountains in Californië.

Achteruitgang

Vanaf 1996 merkten Noord-Amerikaanse wetenschappers een toename op van dode of stervende ratelpopulieren. Naar mate dit in 2004 versnelde begon ook de noodzaak voor nader onderzoek naar de oorzaak. Deze is nog niet gevonden. Bomen kunnen naast elkaar wel of niet zijn getroffen. In andere gevallen zijn hele bosjes dood gegaan.

Gebruik

De schors van de Amerikaanse ratelpopulier bevat een stof die door inheemse Noord-Amerikanen en Europese kolonisten werd gewonnen als een kinine substituut.^[2] Net als andere populieren maakt ook de Ámerikaanse ratelpopulier slecht brandhout, omdat het langzaam droogt, snel rot en niet veel warmte afgeeft. Toch wordt het nog steeds veel gebruikt op campings, omdat het goedkoop en overvloedig aanwezig is. Pioniers in het Noord-Amerikaanse westen gebruikten het hout om blokhutten te maken. Het hout is licht in gewicht en wordt gebruikt voor meubels, dozen en kratten, kernmateriaal in multiplex en wandpanelen. In Canada wordt het hout voornamelijk gebruikt voor de papierindustrie voor zowel boeken, krantenpapier als fijn drukpapier.

Afbeeldingen

Amerikaane ratelpoplier in Nevada
Individuele klonen kunnen in de hefst ontdekt worden zoals te zien is op deze berghelling in Alaska
Typisch geel herfstgebladerte
Atypisch oranje en rood herfstgebladerte
Amerikaanse ratelpopulier bij zonsondergang
Katjes in het voorjaar

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties

↑ Aspen, Quaking (Populus tremuloides). Arbor Day Foundation.
↑ Ewing, Susan (1996). The Great Alaska Nature Factbook. Portland: Alaska Northwest Books

Mediabestanden

Mediabestanden die bij dit onderwerp horen, zijn te vinden op de pagina Populus tremuloides op Wikimedia Commons.

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Amerikaanse ratelpopulier: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De Amerikaanse ratelpopulier (Populus tremuloides) is een plant uit de wilgenfamilie (Salicaceae). Het is een loofboom die van nature voorkomt in de koelere regionen van Noord-Amerika. De bomen kunnen hoogtes bereiken van 25 meter. De schors is bleek van kleur met zwarte littekens. De glanzende groene bijna ronde bladeren, worden goudgeel tot geel, zelden rood, in de herfst. De soort plant zich vaak voort door vanuit zijn wortels nieuw opschot te vormen.

De bloemen van de Amerikaanse ratelpopulieren zijn katjes van ongeveer 4 à 6 cm. Zij komen in de vroege lente, nog voor de bladeren, tevoorschijn. De vrucht is een ongeveer 10 cm hangende reeks van 6 mm grote capsules. Elke capsule bevat ongeveer tien zaden ingebed in donzige pluisjes, wat de windverspreiding van de zaden helpt als ze in de vroege zomer rijp zijn.

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Amerikaosp ( Norwegian )

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Amerikaosp (Populus tremuloides) er et løvfellende tre i vierfamilien.

Den blir opptil 35 meter høy med en stammediameter på én meter. Barken er grønn- eller gulhvit til grå og glatt på de fleste trærne, men store trær har mørkegrå bark med grunne furer. Bladene er ovale til runde, tilspissete, 3–7 cm lange og 3–7 cm brede. Oversiden er mørkegrønn, og undersiden hvitgrønn. Bladranden er fintannet, noe som skiller arten fra den eurasiske slektningen osp (Populus tremula), som har større tenner. Bladstilken er flatklemt fra sidene som hos osp, og bladene skjelver ved det minste vindpust. Høstfargen på løvet er gul, mer sjelden rød.

Amerikaosp vokser i tette bestander som sprer seg med rotskudd og gror raskt fram etter skogbrann. Den vokser i skog, skogkanter, rasmark og på menneskepåvirkete steder som hugstflater, grustak og massedeponier. Den er en dominerende art i parklandet i den nordlige overgangssonen der prærien møter den boreale barskogen.

Mange busker kan forekomme i undervegetasjonen, for eksempel nebbhassel, topplønn, grønnor, Diervilla lonicera, vier og arter i bjørnebær- og ripsslektene. I ospelundene på den nordlige prærien vokser blant annet snøbær, alaskakornell, taggblåhegg, virginiahegg og flere rosearter, og i Rocky Mountains er einer vanlig.

Arten har den største utbredelsen av alle nordamerikanske treslag. I hele verden er det bare osp og furu (Pinus sylvestris) som har større utbredelse. I nord finnes amerikaosp fra Newfoundland, Labrador og Saint-Pierre og Miquelon vestover gjennom Canada til nordvestlige Alaska. Nordgrensen er den arktiske tregrensen. Den finnes sørøstover gjennom Yukon og Britisk Columbia. I det vestlige USA vokser den hovedsakelig i fjellene fra Washington til California, sørlige Arizona, vestlige Texas og nordlige Nebraska. I nordøstlige USA går sørgrensen fra Iowa og østlige Missouri til Vest-Virginia, vestlige Virginia, Pennsylvania og New Jersey. Amerikaosp finnes også i fjellene i Mexico sørover til Guanajuato.

Galleri

Bladverk
Hannrakler
Hunnrakler
Rød høstfarge i Idaho

Litteratur

«Populus tremuloides». Flora of North America. Besøkt 24. august 2017.
D.A. Perala. «Quaking Aspen». Silvics of North America. Besøkt 24. august 2017.

Eksterne lenker

(sv) Amerikaosp hos Dyntaxa
(en) Amerikaosp i Encyclopedia of Life
(en) Amerikaosp i Global Biodiversity Information Facility
(en) Amerikaosp hos NCBI
(en) Amerikaosp hos ITIS
(en) Amerikaosp hos Tropicos
(en) Amerikaosp hos The International Plant Names Index
(en) Kategori:Populus tremuloides – bilder, video eller lyd på Wikimedia Commons
(en) Populus tremuloides – galleri av bilder, video eller lyd på Wikimedia Commons
Populus tremuloides – detaljert informasjon på Wikispecies

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Amerikaosp: Brief Summary ( Norwegian )

provided by wikipedia NO

Amerikaosp (Populus tremuloides) er et løvfellende tre i vierfamilien.

Den blir opptil 35 meter høy med en stammediameter på én meter. Barken er grønn- eller gulhvit til grå og glatt på de fleste trærne, men store trær har mørkegrå bark med grunne furer. Bladene er ovale til runde, tilspissete, 3–7 cm lange og 3–7 cm brede. Oversiden er mørkegrønn, og undersiden hvitgrønn. Bladranden er fintannet, noe som skiller arten fra den eurasiske slektningen osp (Populus tremula), som har større tenner. Bladstilken er flatklemt fra sidene som hos osp, og bladene skjelver ved det minste vindpust. Høstfargen på løvet er gul, mer sjelden rød.

Amerikaosp vokser i tette bestander som sprer seg med rotskudd og gror raskt fram etter skogbrann. Den vokser i skog, skogkanter, rasmark og på menneskepåvirkete steder som hugstflater, grustak og massedeponier. Den er en dominerende art i parklandet i den nordlige overgangssonen der prærien møter den boreale barskogen.

Mange busker kan forekomme i undervegetasjonen, for eksempel nebbhassel, topplønn, grønnor, Diervilla lonicera, vier og arter i bjørnebær- og ripsslektene. I ospelundene på den nordlige prærien vokser blant annet snøbær, alaskakornell, taggblåhegg, virginiahegg og flere rosearter, og i Rocky Mountains er einer vanlig.

Arten har den største utbredelsen av alle nordamerikanske treslag. I hele verden er det bare osp og furu (Pinus sylvestris) som har større utbredelse. I nord finnes amerikaosp fra Newfoundland, Labrador og Saint-Pierre og Miquelon vestover gjennom Canada til nordvestlige Alaska. Nordgrensen er den arktiske tregrensen. Den finnes sørøstover gjennom Yukon og Britisk Columbia. I det vestlige USA vokser den hovedsakelig i fjellene fra Washington til California, sørlige Arizona, vestlige Texas og nordlige Nebraska. I nordøstlige USA går sørgrensen fra Iowa og østlige Missouri til Vest-Virginia, vestlige Virginia, Pennsylvania og New Jersey. Amerikaosp finnes også i fjellene i Mexico sørover til Guanajuato.

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Topola osikowa ( Polish )

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Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons

Topola osikowa (Populus tremuloides Michx.) – gatunek drzewa należący do rodziny wierzbowatych (Salicaceae). Występuje w Ameryce Północnej (nie należy go mylić z europejską topolą osiką – Populus tremula).

Spis treści

1 Morfologia
2 Ekologia
3 Przypisy
4 Bibliografia

Morfologia

Kora

Liście jesienią

Kwiatostany żeńskie

Pokrój: Drzewo o wysokości do 20 m (rzadko 30 m) i luźnej koronie. W pierśnicy osiąga ok. 80 cm (rekord to 1,37 m).
Pień: Wysoki, prosty. Kora początkowo gładka, jasna, zielonkawa do żółtawo-brązowej, w starszym wieku szarobrązowa i spękana w dolnej części.
Liście: Ulistnienie skrętoległe. Liście prawie okrągłe, o szerokości 4-8 cm, na brzegu karbowane. Cechą charakterystyczną jest spłaszczony bocznie ogonek liściowy, dzięki czemu liście "drżą" pod wpływem wiatru, a z koron drzew dobiega stale cichy, charakterystyczny szum. Liście na pędach młodych i odroślowych mają kształt trójkątny i osiągają do 10-20 cm długości.
Kwiaty: Roślina dwupienna – na jednym drzewie występują tylko kwiaty jednej płci – albo męskie, albo żeńskie. Zebrane są w kotki. Kotki męskie i żeńskie mają długość 4-6 cm. Kwitnie przed rozwojem liści. Jest wiatropylna.
Owoce: Torebki o średnicy ok. 6 mm skupione są na osi o długości ok. 10 cm. Każda zawiera ok. 10 nasion.
Nasiona: Zaopatrzone w długi, biały puch. Rozsiewane są przez wiatr (anemochoria).

Las topoli osikowych, Alaska. Poszczególne genety w przybliżeniu odróżnić można po tempie przebarwiania się liści w okresie jesiennym

Ekologia

Występuje na zróżnicowanych siedliskach. Nie znosi silnego zacienienia i pojawia się na terenach otwartych w postaci jednogatunkowych drzewostanów lub mieszanych z udziałem innych światłolubnych gatunków. Masowo kolonizuje miejsca po pożarach. Występuje w postaci klonalnej (jako genet) – nowe drzewa wyrastają z odrostów korzeniowych. Znane są okazy liczące dziesiątki tysięcy ramet (pni) zajmujących ponad 17 hektarów powierzchni, osiągających łączną masę ponad 6,5 tys. ton (dla największego klonu zwanego Pando obliczono masę 6615 ton^[2]) i żyjących być może już od miliona lat^[3]^[4].

Przypisy

↑ Stevens P.F.: Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (ang.). 2001–. [dostęp 2009-12-10].
↑ Trouble for Pando? (ang.). W: SegoLily [on-line]. Utah Native Plant Society, 2010. [dostęp 2011-02-11].
↑ Populus tremuloides (ang.). Fire Effects Information System. [dostęp 12 maja 2008].
↑ The Trembling Giant (ang.). Discover, 1993. [dostęp 12 maja 2008].

Bibliografia

Native trees of Canada. Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources. Canada. Forestry Branch, 1952.

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Topola osikowa: Brief Summary ( Polish )

provided by wikipedia POL

Topola osikowa (Populus tremuloides Michx.) – gatunek drzewa należący do rodziny wierzbowatych (Salicaceae). Występuje w Ameryce Północnej (nie należy go mylić z europejską topolą osiką – Populus tremula).

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Populus tremuloides ( Portuguese )

provided by wikipedia PT

O álamo-trémulo (Populus tremuloides), é uma espécie de árvore caducifólia do gênero Populus, pertencente à família Salicaceae. É oriunda das áreas mais frias da América do Norte.^[1]

Uma colónia clonal de Populus tremuloides designada Pando é o mais velho organismo vivo conhecido.

Referências

↑ Populus tremuloides por Bryce Canyon National Park Service

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Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

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O álamo-trémulo (Populus tremuloides), é uma espécie de árvore caducifólia do gênero Populus, pertencente à família Salicaceae. É oriunda das áreas mais frias da América do Norte.

Uma colónia clonal de Populus tremuloides designada Pando é o mais velho organismo vivo conhecido.

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Amerikansk asp ( Swedish )

provided by wikipedia SV

Denna biologirelaterade artikel saknar väsentlig information. Du kan hjälpa till genom att tillföra sådan.

Amerikansk asp (Populus tremuloides)^[1] är en videväxtart som beskrevs av André Michaux. Enligt Catalogue of Life^[2]^[3] och Dyntaxa^[4] ingår Amerikansk asp i släktet popplar och familjen videväxter. Arten har ej påträffats i Sverige.^[4] Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.^[2]

Bildgalleri

Maroon Bells nära Aspen, Colorado
Matanuska Valley, i Alaska

Källor

^ Michx., 1803 In: Fl. Bor. Am. 2: 243
^ [a b] Roskov Y., Kunze T., Orrell T., Abucay L., Paglinawan L., Culham A., Bailly N., Kirk P., Bourgoin T., Baillargeon G., Decock W., De Wever A., Didžiulis V. (ed) (24 mars 2014). ”Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life: 2014 Annual Checklist.”. Species 2000: Reading, UK. http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2014/details/species/id/16758612. Läst 26 maj 2014.
^ World Plants: Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World
^ [a b] Dyntaxa Populus tremuloides

Externa länkar

Wikimedia Commons har media som rör Populus tremuloides.
Bilder & media

Wikispecies har information om Populus tremuloides.
Artförteckning

Denna artikel om popplar saknar väsentlig information. Du kan hjälpa till genom att tillföra sådan.

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Amerikansk asp: Brief Summary ( Swedish )

provided by wikipedia SV

Denna biologirelaterade artikel saknar väsentlig information. Du kan hjälpa till genom att tillföra sådan.

Amerikansk asp (Populus tremuloides) är en videväxtart som beskrevs av André Michaux. Enligt Catalogue of Life och Dyntaxa ingår Amerikansk asp i släktet popplar och familjen videväxter. Arten har ej påträffats i Sverige. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

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Populus tremuloides ( Vietnamese )

provided by wikipedia VI

Populus tremuloides là một loài thực vật có hoa trong họ Liễu. Loài này được Michx. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1803.^[1]

Hình ảnh

Chú thích

^ The Plant List (2010). “Populus tremuloides”. Truy cập ngày 31 tháng 8 năm 2013.

Liên kết ngoài

Phương tiện liên quan tới Populus tremuloides tại Wikimedia Commons
Dữ liệu liên quan tới Populus tremuloides tại Wikispecies
Vườn thực vật hoàng gia Kew; Đại học Harvard; Australian Plant Name Index (biên tập). “Populus tremuloides”. International Plant Names Index. Truy cập ngày 31 tháng 8 năm 2013.

Bài viết Họ Liễu này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.

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s

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Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary ( Vietnamese )

provided by wikipedia VI

Populus tremuloides là một loài thực vật có hoa trong họ Liễu. Loài này được Michx. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1803.

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Тополь осинообразный ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию

Содержание

1 Ботаническое описание
2 Ареал
3 Таксономия
4 Примечания
5 Литература

Ботаническое описание

Тополь осинообразный — листопадное дерево, нередко достигающее 35 м в высоту. Кора ствола в нижней части тёмно-серая, с неглубокими бороздками, выше — гладкая, зеленоватая, желтоватая или серая. Веточки красно-коричневые, через три года становящиеся серыми.

Листья в очертании от округлых до яйцевидных, обычно 3—7 см в диаметре, с клиновидным или сердцевидным основанием. Край листовой пластинки почти цельный или мелкозубчатый. Верхняя поверхность листа тёмно-зелёная, нижняя — голая, светло-зелёная сизоватая. Черешки до 6 см длиной.

Серёжки состоят из 50—65 (редко до 130) цветков. Цветки с 6—12 тычинками с притупленными пыльниками и 2 нитевидными пестиками. Завязь двухгнёздная.

Плод — коробочка узкояйцевидной формы, с 6—18 семенами.

Число хромосом — 2n = 38, 57, 76.

Ареал

Тополь осинообразный — самое широко распространённое дерево Северной Америки. Его ареал простирается от Ньюфаундленда и Лабрадора и южной Аляски на севере до северной Мексики на юге.

Использовался для озеленения в республиках СССР (в частности на Украине).

Таксономия

ещё 39 семейств
(согласно Системе APG III) ещё около 40 видов порядок Мальпигиецветные род Тополь отдел Цветковые, или Покрытосеменные семейство Ивовые вид Тополь осинообразный ещё 58 порядков цветковых растений
(по Системе APG III) ещё 54 рода

Гибриды

Populus ×heimburgeri B.Boivin, 1966 [Populus tremuloides × Populus grandidentata]
Populus ×smithii B.Boivin, 1966 [Populus tremuloides × Populus alba]
Populus ×wettsteinii Hämet-Ahti, 1989 [Populus tremuloides × Populus tremula]

Интересные факты

Самым старым растением на планете возможно является клональная колония тополя осинообразного, называемая лесом Пандо, или рощей Пандо. Пандо считается единым живым организмом на основании идентичных генетических маркеров и общей корневой системы. Клональная колония охватывает площадь, равную 43 гектарам, вес растения оценивается в 6000 тонн, что делает его самым тяжёлым известным организмом. Возраст колонии оценивается в 80 тысяч лет^[3]^[4].

Синонимы

Populus tremuloides f. pendula (Tausch) Scheele, 1903

Populus benzoifera var. pendula Tausch, 1838
Populus tremuloides var. pendula (Tausch) H.Jaeger, 1884

Populus tremuloides f. tremuloidestypus

Populus atheniensis Lodd. ex C.F.Ludw., 1783, nom. inval.
Populus aurea Tidestr., 1911
Populus benzoifera Tausch, 1838
Populus cercidiphylla Britton, 1908
Populus cretica Dum.Cours., 1814, nom. inval.
Populus graeca C.F.Ludw. ex Aiton, 1789
Populus laevigata Willd., 1806
Populus tremula subsp. tremuloides (Michx.) Á.Löve & D.Löve, 1976
Populus tremuloides var. aurea (Tidestr.) Daniels, 1911
Populus tremuloides var. cercidiphylla (Britton) Sudw., 1927
Populus tremuloides var. vancouveriana (Trel.) Sarg., 1919
Populus tremuliformis G.B.Emerson, 1846, nom. superfl.
Populus trepida Willd., 1806
Populus vancouveriana Trel., 1915
Tremula trepida (Willd.) Raf. ex B.D.Jacks., 1896, nom. inval.

Примечания

↑ Об условности указания класса двудольных в качестве вышестоящего таксона для описываемой в данной статье группы растений см. раздел «Системы APG» статьи «Двудольные».
↑ Древесные породы мира / Калуцкий, К. К.. — М.: Лесная промышленность, 1982. — Т. 2. — С. 145, 146.
↑ Jennifer DeWoody, Carol A. Rowe, Valerie D. Hipkins, and Karen E. Mock. “Pando” Lives: Molecular Genetic Evidence of a Giant Aspen Clone in Central Utah // Western North American Naturalist. — 2008. — № 68 (4). — С. 493—497.
↑ Michael Grant. Case Study: The Glorious, Golden, and Gigantic Quaking Aspen (неопр.). Проверено 14 января 2017.

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Тополь осинообразный: Brief Summary ( Russian )

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Quaking Aspen

Populus tremuloides Michx.

Management Considerations

Associated Forest Cover

Climate

Damaging Agents

Flowering and Fruiting

Genetics

Growth and Yield

Reaction to Competition

Rooting Habit

Seed Production and Dissemination

Seedling Development

Special Uses

Vegetative Reproduction

Brief Summary

Distribution

Populus tremuloides ( Asturian )

Conteníu

Distribución y hábitat

Descripción

Decesos

Taxonomía

Ver tamién

Referencies

Bibliografía

Enllaces esternos

Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary ( Asturian )

Populus tremuloides ( Azerbaijani )

Mənbə

Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary ( Azerbaijani )

Populus tremuloides ( Catalan; Valencian )

Contingut

Nom

Descripció

Distribució

Usos

Notes

Referències

Populus tremuloides: Brief Summary ( Catalan; Valencian )

Amerikansk asp ( Danish )

Referencer

Amerikansk asp: Brief Summary ( Danish )

Amerikanische Zitterpappel ( German )

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Habitus und Alter

Wurzel

Lebenszyklus

Reproduktion und Jugend

Blüte und Fruchtstände

Samen und Aussaat

Entwicklung der Sämlinge

Verbreitungsgebiet und Lebensraum

Klima

Böden und Topografie

Waldgesellschaften

Nutzung

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

Amerikanische Zitterpappel: Brief Summary ( German )

Populus tremuloides ( Udmurt )

நடுங்கும் மரம் ( Tamil )

பொருளடக்கம்

நடுங்கும் மரம்

வகைப்பாடு

இதரப் பெயர்கள்

மரத்தின் அமைவு

இலை அமைவு

காணப்படும் பகுதி

மேற்கோள்

Vé'škee'e

Populus tremuloides

Description

Name

Distribution

Ecology

Dieback

Uses

Culture

See also