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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 60.7 years (captivity)
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Conservation Status

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Chinese alligators are a critically endangered species. They are currently on the IUCN Red List of threatened species, and have been since 1986. Previously, they were listed in the IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia Red Data Book. Habitat destruction is identified as the primary cause for their decline. Other factors include pollution and human intolerance and predation. Although they are fairly successful in captivity worldwide, there are thought to be less than 150 individuals alive in the wild today. Laws have been set in place to protect these animals, and luckily the small region in which they live is somewhat isolated. The Yangtze River basin floods every year, preventing its use as farm land and from permanent human residency. Although there has been much success in breeding Chinese alligators in captivity, little effort is being made to release captive bred individuals to replenish the wild population.

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: appendix i

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: critically endangered

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Associations

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Adult Chinese alligators have only one predator, humans. Although protected by law, they are still in danger of hunting by humans. Alligators are hunted for their meat and internal organs for alternative medicine use and also food. They are not hunted for skin because the skin on their bellies, customarily used as a textile in other crocodilian species, is covered in osteoderms and therefore inadequate.

Juvenile alligators and eggs are most at risk due to their size. Despite the protection of the mother alligator, the young ones are at a high risk of predation by other larger animals. These predators could be anything from other adult alligators to large birds and fish.

Known Predators:

  • large birds (Aves)
  • alligators (Alligator sinensis)
  • large fish (Actinopterygii)
  • humans (Homo sapiens)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Morphology

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Chinese alligators are yellowish gray in color with pronounced black spotting of the lower jaw. They have four short claw-tipped limbs with five partially webbed toes on each limb. Their long, thick tail provides a primary locomotive force in the water. They have osteoderms, dermal bone lying over the epidermis used as armor, covering both the back and underside of the body. Unlike crocodiles, their fourth mandibular teeth in the lower jaw lie in sockets in the upper jaw, and are unexposed when the jaws are closed. Also characteristic of this species is the upturned snout. Similar to caimans, but unlike their closest relatives, American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), Chinese alligators have a bony plate in the upper eyelid.

Juveniles appear very similar to adults with the exception that juveniles have distinctive yellow bands along their bodies. They have an average of five bands on their bodies, and eight on their tails. As adults mature, their coloring becomes less and less conspicuous.

Males have been recorded up to 2.2 m long from snout to tail, although the average size is 1.5 m. Females have been recorded up to 1.7 m, averaging around 1.4 m.

Range length: 1.4 to 2.2 m.

Average length: 1.4 - 1.5 m.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Life Expectancy

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Both male and female Chinese alligators, once thought to live only into their 50's, have now reached into their 70's in captivity.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
50 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
70 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
38.1 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
27.1 years.

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Habitat

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Chinese alligators live in a subtropical, temperate region. They live in wetlands and swamps, ponds, lakes, as well as freshwater rivers and streams.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial ; freshwater

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; temporary pools

Wetlands: marsh

Other Habitat Features: riparian

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Distribution

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Currently, Chinese alligators reside naturally within the lower Yangtze River basin, located along the central Pacific coast of China. Historically, when populations were more numerous, they spread over much greater areas. Literature cites this species as early as the third century A.D., including reference that it lived in other areas of China and possibly even Korea. It was estimated in 1998 that the geographic range of Chinese alligators had decreased by over ninety percent in the past twenty years.

Biogeographic Regions: oriental (Native )

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Trophic Strategy

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Chinese alligators are nocturnal, carnivorous predators. Adults prey mostly on fish, snails, clams, as well as small mammals and waterfowl. There is some speculation that they may prey on turtles as well. Younger alligators will eat insects and other small invertebrates

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; reptiles; fish; insects; mollusks

Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates, Piscivore , Insectivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore )

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Associations

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Due to their scarcity, Chinese alligators currently have little to no impact on the ecosystems in which they live. Historically they were important aquatic predators.

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Benefits

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Historically, humans used parts of Chinese alligators for alternative medicine, especially to treat afflictions of the gall bladder. They were also used as a food source. Because there are so few in the world today, they have little to no impact on humans.

Positive Impacts: food ; ecotourism ; source of medicine or drug

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Benefits

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Because of their docile nature, and limited abundance in the world, the possibility of attacks by Chinese alligators is highly unlikely. There have never been any attacks recorded by Chinese alligators. Despite this information, if provoked, it is possible that an alligator would attack, and should be considered potentially dangerous.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings); crop pest

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Life Cycle

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Young alligators begin development as hard-shelled eggs laid in a nest. Sex is determined by the temperature of the egg during incubation. Females are produced at lower incubation temperatures of below 28°C, while males are produced at higher temperatures of above 33°C. For this reason nests can produce a majority of one sex over the other based on the temperature of the nest. Similarly, nests can produce different sexes based upon what layer, how deep, or how shallow the egg was buried. The critical temperature for Chinese alligators, producing an even number of males and females is 31°C. The incubation period is approximately seventy days. Hatchlings weigh about 30 g and average slightly over 21 cm long.

Rapid growth occurs for the first five years of life. Reproductive maturity in Chinese alligators is reached after five to seven years. In captivity they are known to reproduce into their fifties.

Development - Life Cycle: temperature sex determination

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Behavior

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Chinese alligators use a bellowing sound, vocalized by both males and females, as a way to communicate location. Although this is used much more frequently during the mating season, it is also used at other times throughout the year. Both males and females use body language to communicate. One example of this is slapping the water with their lower jaws. Another is snapping their jaws as a warning signal. During mating, the male may create subaudible vibrations in the water to attract a mate. Also in mating, the female may rub up against the male to indicate she is ready to mate.

Communication Channels: tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: scent marks ; vibrations

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; vibrations ; chemical

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Untitled

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Other common names: English: Chinese alligator, Yangtze alligator; Chinese: Tou lung, Yow lung, T’o; French: alligator de Chine; German: China-alligator; Spanish: alligator de China.

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Reproduction

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The mating season occurs annually in June, a month after the rainy season has begun. Both males and females will vocalize with a bellow or roar to communicate their location and find a mate. Another feature used in mating shared by both males and females is a musk gland under the lower jaw that produces an attractive scent. Male alligators are polygynous, a male may fertilize several females in one mating season. Females are known to have only one mate each season.

Mating System: polygynous

In July females make a mound nest out of surrounding vegetation and mud on land surrounding lakes or rivers. Females will use coordinated movements of the front and hind limbs to form a pile in the center just under 1 m high. Nests are often located near a burrow so that the mother can attend to her nest during incubation. She will lay an average of ten to forty eggs in a depression on top of the mound, and then cover them with more vegetation. Chinese alligators reach sexual maturity in 5 to 7 years.

Breeding interval: Chinese alligators breed once a year.

Breeding season: Mating occurs in June, followed by egg-laying in mid-July. The female guards the nest for the 70 day incubation period until the hatchlings emerge in September.

Range number of offspring: 10 to 40.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 5 to 7 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 5 to 7 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Females guard the nest from surrounding predators, visiting it frequently, whereas males have no parental involvement. Hatchlings will emerge in September. Responding to their vocalizations, females will remove any debris covering the nest, and bring their offspring to the water. They may even help the hatchlings break out of their egg shells by slowly rolling them around in the mouth and lightly cracking the shell by pressing the egg between the roof of the mouth and tongue. Females are known to live with their young through the first winter, but little else is known about the specific interactions between adult Chinese alligators and their young.

Parental Investment: pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Female)

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Groppi, L. 2006. "Alligator sinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alligator_sinensis.html
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Lauren Groppi, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Biology

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Inhabiting temperate regions, the Chinese alligator spends the winter hibernating in complex underground burrow systems (4). Alligators emerge as the days begin to heat up in May and nesting occurs from July to August (4). Females reach sexual maturity at 4 - 5 years old and lay about 10 - 50 eggs per clutch on mound-nests constructed from plant materials (2). Alligators hunt at night and the Chinese alligator's diet consists mainly of aquatic molluscs such as snails and mussels as well as fish (2); incidental waterbirds and small mammals are also taken (6).
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Conservation

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In contrast to the decimated wild population, the breeding of captive Chinese alligators has been very successful and the captive population currently exceeds 10,000 individuals (2). The Anhui Research Centre of Chinese Alligator Reproduction (ARCCAR) was established in 1979 and houses captive-bred alligators within 26 small protected reserves (2). Any wild populations that remain are severely fragmented and almost none exist in their natural habitat (2). However, the Chinese government has recently allocated funds to create new habitats with a view to introduce captive-bred alligators into the wild in three other provinces (2). This encouraging step needs the support of local people to make it a success; they will need to be convinced of the worth of living together with this ancient species that may have been associated with the mythical Chinese dragon.
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Description

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The Chinese alligator is one of the smallest crocodilians (a group that also includes crocodiles, caimans and the gharial) and one of the most endangered (2). The stocky body is covered in hard scales on the back, softer scales on the sides and belly, and is a dark green/black colour. Up to 17 transverse rows of 6 bony scales run along the length of the body, with paired ridges running halfway down the tail and converging into a single ridge that terminates at the end of the tail (5). In addition to its smaller size, the Chinese alligator can be distinguished from its American relative (Alligator mississippiensis) by a slightly upturned and more tapered snout and from bony plates on each upper eyelid (2).
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Habitat

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Originally found in slow-moving riverine and swampy areas, low-elevation agricultural communes and tree farm communes up to 100 m above sea level (4). Now the only remaining wild populations exist in agricultural pools within reserves (6).
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Range

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Once widely distributed throughout the eastern Yangtze River system in China, this species is today mostly restricted to a 433 km² reserve in the Anhui province of the lower Yangtze (2). Although reintroduction efforts in three other provinces in eastern China are currently underway (6).
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Status

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Classified as Critically Endangered (CR - A1c, D) on the IUCN Red List 2002 (1), and listed on Appendix I of CITES (3).
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Threats

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A survey by the Wildlife Conservation Society in 1999 found the wild population of Chinese alligators to be worryingly low: at 130 to 150 individuals (2). Habitat destruction has been the major cause of this decline, and wetland areas continue to be modified for agriculture in an effort to cope with the intense human population pressure in the region (4). A highly secretive species, spending a long period of time (6-7 months) below ground in burrows, the Chinese alligator now primarily exists in populated areas where it inevitably comes into conflict with local farmers. Burrow systems cause drainage problems for fields and alligators also consume ducks owned by farmers (2). Despite a lack of commercial value for the Chinese alligator's skin on the international market, these reptiles are often killed when encountered either through fear or due to a threat to livelihood (2).
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Distribution

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Continent: Asia
Distribution: China (areas around the lower Yangzi River in Jiangau, Zhejiang, Anhui)
Type locality: "Chinkiang" [=Zhenjiang], Kiangsu Province, People's Republic of China; reported as "Wuhu, Anhwei" Province, by Pope 1935, Nat. Hist. Cent. Asia, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 10:65.
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Chinese alligator

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The Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis; simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: tuó),[5] also known as the Yangtze alligator (simplified Chinese: 扬子鳄; traditional Chinese: 揚子; pinyin: yángzǐ'è), China alligator,[2] or historically the muddy dragon,[6] is a crocodilian endemic to China. It and the American alligator (A. mississippiensis) are the only living species in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. Dark gray or black in color with a fully armored body, the Chinese alligator grows to 1.5–2.1 metres (5–7 ft) in length and weighs 36–45 kilograms (80–100 lb) as an adult. It brumates in burrows in winter and is nocturnal in summer. Mating occurs in early summer, with females most commonly producing 20–30 eggs, which are smaller than those of any other crocodilian. The species is an opportunistic feeder, primarily eating fish and invertebrates. A vocal species, adults bellow during the mating season and young vocalize to communicate with their parents and other juveniles. Captive specimens have reached age 70, and wild specimens can live past 50.

Living in bodies of fresh water, the Chinese alligator's range is restricted to six regions in the province of Anhui, as well as possibly the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang. Originally living as far away from its current range as Japan, the species previously had a wide range and population, but beginning in 5000 BC, multiple threats, such as habitat destruction, caused the species' population and range to decline. The population in the wild was about 1,000 in the 1970s, decreased to below 130 in 2001, and grew after 2003, with its population being about 300 as of 2017. Listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, multiple conservation actions have been taking place for this species.

The Chinese alligator has been a part of Chinese literature since the third century. In the late 1200s, Marco Polo became the first person outside of China to write about it. In some writings, the Chinese alligator has been associated with the Chinese dragon. Many pieces of evidence suggest that the Chinese alligator was an inspiration for the Chinese dragon.

History and taxonomy

Chinese alligators were mentioned in Chinese literature very early; for example, in the Classic of Poetry,[7][8] whose poems were composed between the 11th and 7th centuries BCE.[9][10] Marco Polo was the first person outside of China to write about the alligator, when he came to China and saw it in the late 1200s.[11] He said that the alligator lived in "caverns" in the day and hunted at night, and that humans targeted its meat and skin, with its gall bladder having multiple medical purposes. He stated that it was found in lakes, rivers, and springs in the province "Karazan". In 1656, Martino Martini, a priest, wrote that the Chinese alligator lived in the river Yangtze and was "much feared by the local residents".[12] Unlike Polo, Martini wrote his description using information from Chinese literature.[13] Chinese alligators were later thought to give Buddhist priests merit if the priests were to buy alligators held in captivity and release them.[12] In 1869, Robert Swinhoe saw a Chinese alligator in an exhibit in Shanghai and wrote the following year:

In February, 1869, some Chinese were exhibiting in the native city of Shanghai what they called a dragon, which they declared had been dug out of a hole in the province of Shense. It was a young crocodile about four feet long, which they kept in tepid water. They made so much money by showing it that they refused to sell it. I can not, of course, guess its species; but I nevertheless think the fact worth recording, as evidence that a species of this group does occur in China.[13]

The Chinese alligator was described by French naturalist Albert-Auguste Fauvel in 1879 as Alligator sinensis; though Fauvel only noticed mentions of them in Chinese literature since about 222–227 CE.[12][13] The genus Alligator had previously contained only the American alligator since its creation in 1807.[14] Fauvel wrote a detailed description of the species in a book titled Alligators in China: Their History, Description & Identification,[15] including information about its historical account.[13] In 1947, it was suggested to group the Chinese alligator in a separate genus from its American relative, due to the Chinese alligator's bony plate on its upper eyelid. This bony plate is present in caimans, but is rarely present in the American alligator. At the time, the plate was thought to not appear in the American alligator at all. This produced the belief that the Chinese alligator's relationship with other crocodilians was between caimans and American alligators. Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala described the genus Caigator the same year, which only contained the Chinese alligator, making its scientific name Caigator sinensis. However, paleontology has shown that the Chinese alligator has evolved from other now-extinct members of the genus Alligator. This and the fact that the American alligator does infrequently have a bony plate on its eyelid have caused Caigator sinensis to now be classified as a synonym of Alligator sinensis.[12] There is still not a consensus among biologists that the American and Chinese alligators belong to the same genus, despite multiple studies comparing the biochemistry, histology, and various other aspects of the two crocodilians.[16]

The genus, Alligator, is based on the Spanish word el lagarto. The specific name, sinensis, is from the Latin plural possessive sinaensis, meaning "belonging to China".[17]

The oldest definitive record of the Chinese alligator is from the late Pliocene of Japan, around 3 million years old.[18] Pleistocene fossils show that its range was once much more extensive, extending northwards to Shandong and southwards to the Taiwan Strait.[19]

Description

A black and white image of the American alligator and the Chinese alligator next to each other
Comparison of the American alligator (top) and the Chinese alligator (bottom)
An up-close view of the left side of the Chinese alligator's head
Detail of head

One of the smallest species of crocodilians, the Chinese alligator attains a length of 1.5–2.1 metres (5–7 ft) and weight of 36–45 kilograms (80–100 lb) as an adult.[6] Females are roughly three-quarters the length of males.[20] It is less than half the size of the American alligator, which typically grows to a length of 3.4 metres (11.2 ft) for males and 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) for females.[21] Reports are known of alligators in China reaching 3 metres (10 ft) in past centuries, but these are no longer thought to be accurate.[17] The largest reported female measured 2.07 metres (6.8 ft) and weighed 50 kilograms (110 lb), while the largest reported male measured 2.46 metres (8.1 ft) and weighed 84 kilograms (185 lb).[22]

The Chinese alligator is almost completely black or dark gray in color as an adult.[20] It has a short and broad snout,[23] which points slightly upwards and narrows at the end. Its head is robust, more so than that of the American alligator,[24] with a bony septum dividing its nostrils.[23] It has 72–76 teeth, of which 13–14 are maxillary, five premaxillary, and 18–19 mandibular.[17] Four specimens measuring 1.4 to 1.55 m (4 ft 7 in – 5 ft 1 in) in length and weighing 12–15 kg (26–33 lb) had a bite force of 894–1,357 N (201–305 lbf).[25] Unlike the American alligator, the Chinese alligator is fully armored,[6] including its belly.[26] It contains up to 17 rows of scales across its body, which are soft on its belly and side and rougher on its back. Its upper eyelids have bony plates on them, a feature usually not present in the American alligator.[12] Its tail is wider than that of the American alligator. It does not have webbed feet, in contrast to the American alligator, which has extensive webbing on its toes.[23]

Ecology

The Chinese alligator brumates[a] in burrows during winter.[24] After this period of dormancy, it frequently spends time in the sun before summer begins.[24] It is nocturnal throughout summer, feeding at night and sheltering in the daytime, to avoid both humans and the summer heat.[26] This behavior gives it the ability to live in areas where humans are common.[2] A docile species, it generally does not intentionally hurt humans.[6]

Burrowing

This alligator brumates from late October to mid-April, emerging in early May. It constructs its burrows next to ponds and other small bodies of water, using its head and front legs to dig into the ground.[20] They can be large and complex, containing multiple rooms, water pools, and entrances.[26] Most of them are 10–25 metres (33–82 ft) long, with each room having enough space for alligators to turn around after entering. Outside of winter, the burrows serve as retreat sites for the alligators[20] and in summer are where they take shelter in the daytime.[26] The temperature inside them is never colder than 10 °C (50 °F).[17] The burrows can be problematic for farmers, as they cause destruction of farm dykes.[27]

Life cycle

The breeding season of the Chinese alligator is early summer,[26] with the rate of mating being highest in mid-June.[20] The alligator breeds earlier in the year if temperatures are higher.[28] During the time of mating, males commonly search around ponds to find a mate[20] and both male and female specimens are often aggressive to each other.[26] The species exhibits polygamy, with single males mating with multiple females and/or a single female mating with several males. A study of 50 clutches showed multiple paternity in 60% of them, with up to three males contributing.[29] Nests are typically built about 2–3 weeks after mating,[26] from July to late August.[2] Constructed by the females, they are composed of rotting plants, such as leaves, and are 40–70 centimetres (16–28 in) high.[30] Females prefer to assemble them in areas that have a thick canopy and are far from human disturbance. Because islands frequently satisfy both of these conditions, they are often used as nesting sites.[31] Nests are always near water sources.[30] Individuals often return to the same nesting site yearly, although intraspecific competition and environmental changes can force them to change nesting sites.[31]

Generally laid at night,[32] mating typically produces 20–30 eggs,[33] although according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), clutch size ranges between 10 and 40 eggs.[2] After the eggs are laid, the females sometimes leave the nest, but other times stay to protect the eggs.[32] The eggs are about 6 centimetres (2.4 in) in length, 3.5 centimetres (1.38 in) in diameter, and 45 grams (1.59 oz) in weight, making them smaller than the eggs of any other crocodilian.[33] They are typically incubated for about 70 days.[17] On average, the temperature of incubation is 25–26 °C (77–79 °F), including the day and night.[34] This temperature controls whether a young alligator will be male or female (temperature-dependent sex determination),[30] a feature present in many other reptiles. A higher incubation temperature also increases the hatching rate.[34] Young hatch in September,[30] assisted by their mothers.[24]

Newborn alligators, like their eggs, are the smallest of any crocodilian, with a length of 20–22 centimetres (7.87–8.66 in) and weight of 25–30 grams (0.88–1.06 oz).[35] Unlike adults, they have light speckles on their bodies and heads.[20] Mothers help them leave the nest and bring them to the water after hatching.[24] They grow very little in their first year, due to being able to feed for only about 2 months after hatching before the winter.[35] A 2002 study showed that the Chinese alligator is two-thirds the length of the American alligator and one-half its weight at birth, but is one-half its length and one-tenth its weight after one year.[36] Young depend on their mothers to protect them during their first winter, as their small size makes them an easy prey target.[35]

The alligator grows quickly in its first few years, with its growth rate slowing at age five.[37] According to the National Zoological Park, females reach maturity roughly four to five years after birth,[26] although other sources estimate that they mature at age six to seven.[30] It can live to over 50 years,[37] and has been known to reach age 70 in captivity. It cannot breed past its 50s.[26]

Feeding

The Chinese alligator is an opportunistic feeder, meaning that it can prey on a variety of different animals depending on what is available. It is a carnivore, mostly eating fish and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, insects, mussels, clams, and snails.[38][39] When possible, it eats rodents, other small mammals, and aquatic birds as well.[26][40] It has dull teeth, which allow it to eat prey with shells more easily.[6] There is some speculation that they may prey on turtles as well.[41] A study of the alligator in 1985 showed that snails were the most common animal in its diet at 63%, with 65% of that being river snails and 35% spiral-shelled snails. According to the survey, its diet also contained 16% rabbits, 8.3% mollusks, and 4.1% shrimp, with the remaining 6.8% being frogs, fish, and insects.[30]

Vocalization

The Chinese alligator is a vocal species, making many different sounds in multiple situations.[42] When communicating with nearby alligators, it produces sounds such as head slapping, hissing, and whining, which have a low sound pressure level (SPL). To communicate long-distance, it produces bellows, which have a high SPL. All of these sounds have a low frequency of less than 500 hertz, due to the alligator's densely vegetated habitat, which allow the sounds to spread across a greater area.[43]

Both sexes participate in bellowing choruses during the mating season as adults. Lasting an average of 10 minutes, the alligators remain still for the entirety of the chorus, with both sexes responding equally in rough unison.[44] The main purpose of these bellows is to call out to alligator specimens to collect at a specific pond, where individuals choose mates and engage in copulation.[45] Alligators may also bellow to publicize their size, a behavior which occurs in multiple other vertebrates. The size of a specimen is a significant factor for mating; females only mate with males larger than themselves.[46] Bellowing is most common at 6:00–7:00 am and 11:00–12:00 am CST.[45] Although these bellows occur most frequently during the mating season, adults also bellow throughout the rest of the year.[46]

Young Chinese alligators often communicate with each other and their parents using vocal signals to "maintain group cohesion". Young also make sounds when in danger, which alert adults to help and caution nearby young of the threat. Embryos produce distinctive sounds inside their eggs, which alert the adult female that the nest is ready to be opened. These vocalizations are high-pitched, while their danger calls are louder.[42]

Distribution and population

The range of the Chinese alligator is extremely restricted; as of 2015, the only places it is confirmed to live in the wild are Xuancheng, Nanling County, Jing County, Wuhu, Langxi County, and Guangde County – six counties and cities in the province of Anhui,[32] occupying a total area of about 5 square kilometres (1.9 sq mi). It has been reported to rarely occur in the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang, but it is unknown whether it still lives there.[2] It is the only species in the family Alligatoridae that lives on a continent other than North or South America.[26]

Habitat

The Chinese alligator in water, mostly submerged
The habitat of the Chinese alligator is fresh water bodies, as pictured.

The habitat of the Chinese alligator is bodies of fresh water, particularly wetlands and ponds,[2] in areas transitioning between subtropical and temperate climates.[20] It lives at the base of mountains, in areas where grass and shrubs are common.[32] Habitat loss has also forced it to live at higher elevations than it prefers, where the weather is colder and the soil is unfit for burrow digging. Crocodilian conservationist John Thorbjarnarson observed a female who had to build her nest of pine needles rather than the usual plants; the eggs died due to the pine needles not being able to warm them properly.[47]

Population and range trend

The oldest record of the Chinese alligator is a skeleton fragment found in western Japan. The fossil is estimated to be from the late Pliocene period, 3 million years ago (Mya). The skeleton showed that the species was larger at the time than it is currently, with a total length of at least 2 metres (6.6 ft). Alligators are believed to have moved into various parts of Japan either before 25 Mya or after 10 Mya and were extirpated from there during the Plio-Pleistocene period, due to Japan's increased isolation from the continent and harsh climate conditions.[48]

The population of the Chinese alligator began to decline in 5000 BC, when human civilization started to grow in China, after having been very abundant in the lower Yangtze area.[49] This area was one of the first places in the world to farm rice, causing much of the alligator's habitat to be destroyed in favor of rice farms.[47] In the 1700s, much of the Chinese alligator's habitat was replaced with farming fields after a large number of people had moved into the area.[50] By the 20th century, its range was reduced to a few small areas around the Yangtze.[49] In the 1950s, the alligator was in three distinct areas: the southern area of the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) from Pengze to the western shore of Lake Tai (Tai Hu), the mountainous regions of southern Anhui, and the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang, primarily in lakes, streams, and marshes. By the 1970s, it was restricted to small parts of southern Anhui and Zhejiang,[51] at which time the population was about 1,000.[2]

In 1998, the population of the Chinese alligator was the lowest it had ever been; the largest area it lived in was a small pond along the Yangtze surrounded by farmland, which held 11 alligators.[52] In 1999, the Wildlife Conservation Society estimated that 130–150 individuals were left in the wild.[17] According to The New York Times, the population was less than 130 in 2001; at this time, alligators sometimes wandered around to look for a suitable habitat, but were unsuccessful due to their habitat having been turned into rice fields.[47] In 2003, the population began to gradually increase after having been roughly stable between 1998 and 2003.[2] A survey of the population by the Anhui National Nature Reserve for Chinese Alligator (ANNRCA) in 2005 deduced that between 92 and 114 adults and 66 young remained in the wild.[53] The survey reasoned that the species' population was growing in four sites, but stable in the rest of the alligator's range.[2] A 2012 journal article estimated the population at the time to be 120–150.[54] A 2015 survey observed 64 individuals, of which 32 were adults, estimating that the total number of adults was 68–86 and the total population 136–173.[2] Wang Renping, the head of the ANNRCA, stated in 2017 that about 300 specimens existed in the wild, some of which had been born captive and reintroduced to the wild.[53] As of 2018 the population is not considered to be further declining.[2] Due to the low wild population of the Chinese alligator, high inbreeding is a major concern threatening their chances for long-term survival.[55]

Reasons for population decline

Considered to be one of the most endangered crocodilians in the world,[49] the Chinese alligator's biggest threats in the late 20th century were human killing and habitat loss.[2] A majority of the species' wetland habitats were destroyed to construct rice paddies[47] and dams.[56] During the 1970s and 1980s, humans sometimes killed the alligators, because they believed they were pests, out of fear, or for their meat.[52] Their meat was thought to have the ability to cure colds and prevent cancer[6][56] and their organs were sold for medicinal purposes.[17] In several restaurants and food centers in China's more prosperous areas, young alligators were allowed to roam free with their mouths taped shut, and were subsequently killed for human consumption,[57] served as a dish of rice, vegetables, and chopped up alligator flesh.[47] In the late 20th century, people living in the range of the Chinese alligator ate its meat due to believing that it was dragon meat.[50]

The Yangtze was flooded in the winter of 1957, which is believed to have caused many Chinese alligators to drown.[50] Rats, which this species eat, have been poisoned by farmers, so were also a cause for the diminishing of the species.[6] The organochlorine compound sodium pentachlorophenate was used to kill snails in agricultural fields starting in 1958, which incidentally poisoned the alligators as well.[50] Other factors that led to the endangerment of the alligator include natural disasters and geographic separation.[2]

Status and conservation

In its native country, the Chinese alligator has been listed as a Class I endangered species since 1972, which gives it the highest possible degree of legal protection and makes killing or capturing the species in the wild forbidden.[2] It is listed as a CITES Appendix I species[58] and an endangered species by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.[59] Following six assessments as endangered from 1982 to 1994, it is classified as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List as of 2017.[2] In 1982, the Anhui National Nature Reserve for Chinese Alligator (ANNRCA) was created, a reserve spanning across the entire range of the Chinese alligator,[32] now covering an area of 18,565 hectares (45,880 acres).[2]

In captivity

Two Chinese alligators among rocks
Chinese alligators at Shanghai Zoo

As of 2016, at least 20,000 Chinese alligators[b] are living in captivity due to captive-breeding programs, the first initiated in the 1970s.[60] Captive-born Chinese alligators have been reintroduced into their native range, boosting the wild population.[61] Six specimens were released from captivity in 2007, followed by six more in June 2015.[62] As of June 2016, the largest group of Chinese alligators to have been released in the wild was when 18 specimens were reintroduced to Langxi County, part of the species' native habitat, on May 22, 2016. These releases have proven successful, with individuals adapting well to a life in the wild and breeding.[5] A year after the 2007 release, 16 young alligators were found living in the wild. 60 alligator eggs were observed in 2016, distributed in three nests at a wetland park. Although a typhoon in September the same year flooded and eliminated two of the nests, three hatchlings were found in the same area several days after.[62]

China

The two largest breeding centers for the Chinese alligator are in, or near, the areas where Chinese alligators are still found in the wild. The Anhui Research Center for Chinese Alligator Reproduction (ARCCAR) is the largest of them, housing roughly 15,000 Chinese alligators as of 2016.[2] The center is 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from the city of Xuancheng,[c][30] where it makes use of a series of ponds in a small valley.[63] Founded in 1979, the ARCCAR was stocked with 212 alligators[53] collected from the wild over the first decade after its establishment,[64] and received alligator eggs collected by the area's residents and the ARCCAR's own staff from the nests of wild alligators as well.[65] In 1988, the first eggs by human-bred alligators were laid. The reserve decided to reintroduce some of its alligators in the wild in 2001, which was carried out in 2003 when three alligators were released.[53] The alligator breeding was so successful that the ARCCAR began to use the alligators for local meat consumption and live animals for the European pet market, with the profits from these activities continuing to fund the breeding centers.[66]

The other major breeding center for the species is the Changxing Chinese Alligator Nature Reserve (CCANR)[2] or Changxing Nature Reserve and Breeding Center for Chinese Alligators (CNRBRCCA),[67] in Changxing County, Zhejiang, about 92 kilometres (57 mi) east of the ARCCAR.[d] Originally known as the Yinjiabian Alligator Conservation Area (尹家边扬子鳄保护区), the breeding center was established in 1982.[66][68] Unlike the ARCCAR, where alligator eggs are collected by the center's staff for incubation in controlled condition, the CCANR allows eggs to hatch naturally.[63] According to a 2013 official report,[69] the CCANR housed almost 4,000 alligators, including 2,089 young (1–3 years old), 1,598 juveniles (4–12 years old), and 248 adults (13+ years old).[67] By 2016, 5,500 specimens were housed at the center.[2]

In 2003, the ARCCAR received a donation of $1.2 million from the State Forestry and Grassland Administration of China (SFGA) and $740,000 from the government of Anhui. This allowed the organization to create two new breeding areas to hold the alligators, 1.6 hectares (4.0 acres) each, as well as heighten the existing fence. The same year, the CCANR received a donation of $600,000 from the SFGA and $800,000 from the government of Changxing, enabling it to reinstate wetlands for the alligators and enhance its facilities.[2] Both the ARCCAR and the CCANR position themselves as tourist attractions, where paying visitors can view alligators and learn about them.[70]

Multiple other breeding facilities that house the Chinese alligator exist in various provinces of China, as well as private breeding farms and museums.[2]

Foreign countries

The Chinese alligator's head and front part of body among grass next to water
The Chinese alligator in the Smithsonian National Zoological Park

The Chinese alligator is also kept and bred at many zoos and aquariums in North America and Europe. Some individuals bred there have been returned to China for reintroduction to the wild.[61] The first time the alligators were ever transported internationally is believed to have been when several were taken from China to the United States in the 1950s. In November 2017, four Chinese alligators were transported from their natural habitat in China to Shizuoka, Japan.[53]

Among the North American zoos and aquariums keeping this species are the Bronx Zoo,[71] Cincinnati Zoo,[61] Great Plains Zoo, Sedgwick County Zoo, Philadelphia Zoo,[72] San Diego Zoo,[6] Santa Barbara Zoo,[73] Smithsonian National Zoological Park,[26] and St. Louis Zoo.[24] In Europe, about 25 zoos and aquariums keep the species, such as the Barcelona Zoo (Spain), Parque de las Ciencias (Granada) (Spain), Bioparco di Roma (Italy), Crocodile Zoo (Denmark), Moscow Zoo (Russia), Pairi Daiza (Belgium), Paradise Wildlife Park (England), Parken Zoo (Sweden), Prague Zoo (Czech Republic), Tallinn Zoo (Estonia) and Tierpark Berlin (Germany).[74]

Chinese dragon association

3D artwork of the Chinese dragon on a wall
The Chinese dragon in Haikou, Hainan, China

Some writers have suggested that the Chinese alligator was the inspiration for the Chinese dragon.[24][75] This theory was widespread in the early 1900s, and the idea was later revisited by John Thorbjarnarson and Xiaoming Wang.[76] According to The New York Times, the association with the "beneficent" mythological creature is an advantage for the species.[47]

Unlike dragons in myths of the Western Hemisphere, the Chinese dragon is portrayed as a symbol of "royal power and good fortune", frequently helping and saving people. It is able to swim in water or air.[47] The relatively harmless nature of the Chinese alligator is believed to have been an influence for the helpful nature of the dragon.[75] The fact that the alligator ends its brumation when the rainy season begins and returns to its burrows when the rainwater in rivers recedes, as well as the fact that it lives in bodies of water, may be the reason for the dragon's portrayal as a water-related mythological creature.[75][76] Alligator drums may have been used to simulate the species' vocalizations during the mating season, which humans associated with the dragon's "power of summoning rainclouds".[76]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ A form of dormancy similar to hibernation that is exhibited by reptiles
  2. ^ Over 15,000 in the Anhui Research Center for Chinese Alligator Reproduction (ARCCAR) and 5,500 in the Changxing Nature Reserve and Breeding Center for Chinese Alligators (CNRBRCCA), as well as those living in other facilities[2]
  3. ^
  4. ^

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Chinese alligator: Brief Summary

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The Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis; simplified Chinese: 鼍; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: tuó), also known as the Yangtze alligator (simplified Chinese: 扬子鳄; traditional Chinese: 揚子; pinyin: yángzǐ'è), China alligator, or historically the muddy dragon, is a crocodilian endemic to China. It and the American alligator (A. mississippiensis) are the only living species in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. Dark gray or black in color with a fully armored body, the Chinese alligator grows to 1.5–2.1 metres (5–7 ft) in length and weighs 36–45 kilograms (80–100 lb) as an adult. It brumates in burrows in winter and is nocturnal in summer. Mating occurs in early summer, with females most commonly producing 20–30 eggs, which are smaller than those of any other crocodilian. The species is an opportunistic feeder, primarily eating fish and invertebrates. A vocal species, adults bellow during the mating season and young vocalize to communicate with their parents and other juveniles. Captive specimens have reached age 70, and wild specimens can live past 50.

Living in bodies of fresh water, the Chinese alligator's range is restricted to six regions in the province of Anhui, as well as possibly the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang. Originally living as far away from its current range as Japan, the species previously had a wide range and population, but beginning in 5000 BC, multiple threats, such as habitat destruction, caused the species' population and range to decline. The population in the wild was about 1,000 in the 1970s, decreased to below 130 in 2001, and grew after 2003, with its population being about 300 as of 2017. Listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, multiple conservation actions have been taking place for this species.

The Chinese alligator has been a part of Chinese literature since the third century. In the late 1200s, Marco Polo became the first person outside of China to write about it. In some writings, the Chinese alligator has been associated with the Chinese dragon. Many pieces of evidence suggest that the Chinese alligator was an inspiration for the Chinese dragon.

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