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Behavior

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The main communication between members of this species are the songs sung during mating, which are used to attract potential mates. Some bodily communication is seen during the courtship ritual, as the female indicates her availability by crouching and raising her tail feathers. The movements made by the male during courtship can also be perceived as a form of communication. African pygmy falcons have a very keen sense of sight, common to most diurnal birds of prey.

African pygmy falcons rarely call outside of the mating season. There have been a few different songs observed, including a "thin, squeaky 'tsip-tsip';'kiki-kik' (last syllable accented), or 'twee-twee-twip' used by [the male] calling [the female] from the nest; a sharp ringing 'ki-ki-ki-ki-ki-ki-ki-ki' by young in threat; in copulation, purring 'kirrrrr-kirrrrr-kirrrrr'; negging chicks 'seee-seee-seee'" (Brown, et al., 1982). The calls are usually high in pitch and soft.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Conservation Status

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African pygmy falcons are common birds within their range, they are not considered threatened. Man made structures have increased the number of potential nesting sites for these animals. It is possible, however, that urbanization could someday threaten Polihierax semitorquatus with habitat loss.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Daniel Davieau, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
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Benefits

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There are no adverse effects of Polihierax semitorquatus on humans.

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Benefits

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Polihierax semitorquatus rarely intersects with humans due to the harsh climate that it lives in. The only real advantages to humans are ornithological study and birdwatching.

Positive Impacts: research and education

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Daniel Davieau, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
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Associations

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Polihierax semitorquatus, due to its use of weaver nests (Ploceidae), can be considered parasitic or symbiotic, depending on the location. In the southwestern portion of their range, African pygymy falcons may protect social weavers from predators such as snakes, while gaining a safe area to raise young. White-headed buffalo weavers, in the northeastern part of their range, are more powerful than African pygymy falcons and receive no benefits from their presence. African pygymy falcons can be considered parasitic to white-headed buffalo weavers and considered a "nest pirate". African pygymy falcons are major predators of insects and lizards and are a danger to smaller birds and rodents.

Ecosystem Impact: parasite

Species Used as Host:

  • white-headed buffalo weavers (Dinemellia dinemelli)
  • social weavers (Philetairus socius)
  • white-browed sparrow weavers (Plocepasser mahali)
  • glossy starlings (Lamprotornis nitens)

Mutualist Species:

  • social weavers (Philetairus socius)
  • glossy starlings (Lamprotornis nitens)
  • white-browed sparrow weavers (Plocepasser mahali)
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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Daniel Davieau, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
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Trophic Strategy

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African pygymy falcons are carnivorous, with a diet consisting of mostly insects and lizards. Smaller birds and certain rodents are also sometimes preyed on. Occasionally these falcons will prey on weavers (Ploceidae) or their hatchlings when inhabiting their nests. It is believed that insects alone are insufficient for the dietary needs of young pygmy falcons. Lizards, rodents, and birds are crucial for the survival of the young. The falcon catches its prey by swooping quickly from the branch of a tree.

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; reptiles; insects

Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates, Insectivore )

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Daniel Davieau, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
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Distribution

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Polihierax semitorquatus, the African pygmy falcon, is native to two separate regions of Africa: northeastern Africa including Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Tanzania; and southwestern Africa including Namibia, Botswana, Angola, and Cape Province. This species is generally non-migratory. Polihierax semitorquatas shares its geographic range with the range of social weavers, Philetairus socius, in southern Africa, and white-headed buffalo weavers, Dinemellia dinemelli, in northern Africa.

Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Daniel Davieau, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
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Habitat

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African pygmy falcons inhabit dry, arid climates with sparse vegetation. These areas may receive as little as 100 mm/year of precipitation, or up to 600 mm/year (Brown, et. al, 1982). With the exception of a few non-breeding members, African pygmy falcons almost exclusively inhabit areas where social weavers (Philetairus socius, in the SW portion of its range) or white-headed buffalo weavers (Dinemellia dinemelli, in the NE portion of its range) reside.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; scrub forest

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Life Expectancy

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Little is known concerning the lifespan of African pygmy falcons, though it is likely similar to the six to eight (with a maximum of about twenty) year lifespan of other diurnal birds of prey.

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Daniel Davieau, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
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Morphology

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African pygmy falcons have a white face, breast, and abdomen. Female members have darker, chestnut colored backs, where males have grey backs. White spots decorate the back of the neck and the tail feathers. Polihierax semitorquatas has brown eyes and light orange legs. The base of the beak is an orange color, and the beak itself is grey. When hatched, African pygmy falcons are white in color and their eyes are shut. The eyes will normally open in two or three days. Young have paler feet than their adult counterparts, with a reddish-brown back and neck. The breast, face, and abdomen of juveniles is white. Members of the species will mature in approximately one year.

Range mass: 54 to 76 g.

Average length: 20 cm.

Average wingspan: 37 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: female more colorful

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Associations

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Polihierax semitorquatus is rarely preyed on, as it is a fairly powerful predator itself. Occasionally immature African pygmy falcons will be attacked in their nests, but the aggression of the parents during breeding season normally prevents this.

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Reproduction

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African pygmy falcons rely on the social weavers (Philetairus socius) in the northeast part of their range and white-headed buffalo weavers (Dinemellia dinemelli) in the southwestern part of their range for nesting. Occasionally northeastern birds will occupy the nests of white-browed sparrow weavers (Plocepasser mahali) and glossy starlings (Lamprotornis nitens). Approximately one-quarter of all weaver nests in these areas are occupied by African pygmy falcons. Thus, this falcon is one of a few species of birds that are "obligate nest pirates" (also see South American troupials, Icterus icterus).

More is known of Polihierax semitorquatus breeding habits in the southern portion of their range, but birds in both areas engage in a relatively quiet display that includes bobbing of the head, wagging of the tail, and calling. The female will squat down and raise her tail feathers to indicate that she is prepared to mate. Polihierax semitorquatus is usually seasonally monogamous, but is occasionally polyandrous, and it is not uncommon for two or more males to attend the same nest. This behavior may be influenced by limited availability of suitable nesting sites.

Mating System: monogamous ; polyandrous ; cooperative breeder

Polihierax semitorquatus usually will breed once per year, but will sometimes produce two broods in a favorable year. Eggs are normally laid about three weeks after copulation. The female lays from two to four eggs which are incubated for 27 to 31 days. Females begin incubating with the first egg laid, so hatching is asynchronous. Since the young do not hatch at the same time, they may be different sizes. The young will leave their nests from 27 to 40 days after hatching. Polihierax semitorquatus is considered sexually mature at one year of age.

Breeding interval: African pygmy falcons breed up to twice per year.

Breeding season: African pygmy falcons breed from June to December in northeastern Africa and August to March in southwestern Africa.

Range eggs per season: 2 to 4.

Range time to hatching: 28 to 30 days.

Range fledging age: 27 to 40 days.

Average time to independence: 2 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; oviparous

At the beginning of the breeding season, two or more parents choose a nesting chamber and reside there together. After the eggs are laid, the parents share incubation, with the female incubating most of the time and the male incubating while the female feeds. The male will also bring the female food while she is incubating. After hatching the female will tend to the young and the male will hunt for the family. After 21 days, when the chicks have grown feathers, the female will resume hunting. The birds leave the nest at around 27 to 40 days, but may remain with the parents for up to two months, and sporadically return to the nest. Both parents are very aggressive near their nest and their young do not usually fall victim to predators.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents

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Davieau, D. 2008. "Polihierax semitorquatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Polihierax_semitorquatus.html
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Pygmy falcon

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The pygmy falcon (Polihierax semitorquatus) or African pygmy falcon is a bird of prey native to eastern and southern Africa. It is the only species placed in the genus Polihierax. It is the smallest bird of prey on the African continent.

Description

African Pygmy Falcon Female at Buffalo Springs National Reserve, Kenya

Adult pygmy falcons are white below and on the face, grey above, and females having a chestnut back. There are white "eye spots" on the nape. Juveniles have a brown back, duller than adult females, with a rufous wash on the breast. The flight feathers of the wings are spotted black and white (more black above, more white below); the tail is barred black and white.[2][3]

The flight is low and undulating. In size, pattern, and the habit of perching upright on an exposed branch or treetop, this species resembles some shrikes.[2][3]

The call is "a high-pitched kikiKIK, repeated" (Kenya)[2] or "a 'chip-chip' and a 'kik-kik-kik-kik'" (southern Africa).[3]

Distribution and habitat

The pygmy falcon inhabits dry bush. The subspecies P. s. castanonotus occurs from South Sudan to Somalia and south to Uganda and Tanzania; P. s. semitorquatus occurs from Angola to northern South Africa.[1][3] This range is estimated to have an area of 2.7 million km2, and the total population is estimated to be between 100,000 and 1 million birds.[1]

Behaviour and ecology

Pygmy falcons show physiological traits that have adaptive value in a region affected by environmental variability associated with the El Niño Southern Oscillation cycle as well varying food source. They regulate their body temperature by thermal buffering provided by sociable weaver colonies and communal roosting by the falcons.[4] This is important because this reduces the energy requirements for rest-phase thermoregulation by occupants.[4]

Food and feeding

Pygmy falcons prey on reptiles and insects, but will occasionally prey on small birds as well as rodents. They hunt from a perch, swooping down on potential prey.[5] However, Kalahari tree skinks have learned to eavesdrop on sociable weavers to warn of approaching pygmy falcons and run for cover.[6]

Breeding

A pair at Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Male on left and female (brown back) on the right.

In Kenya, pygmy falcons nest in white-headed buffalo weaver nests, and the ranges of the two birds coincide.[2] In southern Africa, they are found around red-billed buffalo weaver nests but predominantly nest in the vacant rooms of sociable weaver nests,[3] which are large and multichambered—even if the sociable weavers still have an active colony in the nest. Despite being bird-eaters and bigger than sociable weavers, the pygmy falcons largely leave the latter alone, though they do occasionally catch and eat nestlings and even adults.[5]

In addition, falcons are obligate users of white-headed buffalo weaver nests; therefore, they experience all of the benefits these nests provide without the energetic cost of building or maintaining them. Weavers also do not maintain these nest chambers occupied by falcons, increasing the likelihood that these particular chambers will break off the main colony . However, falcons appear to have a preference for chambers away from the center of the colony and with shorter entrance tunnels. Although it is likely that falcons would benefit from selecting chambers with better insulation, they are larger than weavers and as a result may struggle to access chambers through longer entrance tunnel.[7]

Pygmy falcons mark their nests by the use of their faecal matter, but the reasons behind this is unknown. It has been suggested that this conspicuous faecal mat (white when fresh and turning pinkish with age) present at the entrance of the chamber could deter snakes and reduce the number of ectoparasites.[8] Faecal matter is also though to boost the immune system of chicks as well as signal to conspecifics. Faecal mats at the entrance of occupied chambers may serve as a social signal to indicate to other falcons that a colony is occupied.[8]

On one occasion a male pygmy falcon was recorded killing another male, and then subsequently took over the dead males territory and reproduced with the dead males partner.[9]

Cooperative breeding

Pygmy falcon territories are occasionally inhabited by groups, where there are more than two adults living together and tending nestlings.[10] There are four potential reasons for this behaviour: defence, co-operative polyandry, delayed dispersal of offspring and cooperation, and thermoregulation (warmth). Corroboration for the last is that in winter African pygmy falcons nest further inside the nest of sociable weavers, where there is better insulation.[11]

Status

Pygmy falcons are not threatened.

References

  1. ^ a b c BirdLife International (2016). "Polihierax semitorquatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22696313A93554647. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22696313A93554647.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d Zimmerman, Dale A.; Turner, Donald A. & Pearson, David J. (1999). Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Princeton University Press. pp. 90–91, 110–111, 309. ISBN 0-691-01022-6.
  3. ^ a b c d e Sinclair, Ian; Hockey, Phil & Tarboton, Warwick (2002). Birds of Southern Africa. Princeton University Press. pp. 116, 132. ISBN 0-691-09682-1. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
  4. ^ a b Lund, Jess; Bolopo, Diana; Thomson, Robert L.; Elliott, Dorianne L.; Arnot, Luke F.; Kemp, Ryno; Lowney, Anthony M.; McKechnie, Andrew E. (2020-02-29). "Winter thermoregulation in free-ranging pygmy falcons in the Kalahari Desert". Journal of Ornithology. 161 (2): 549–555. doi:10.1007/s10336-020-01755-y. ISSN 2193-7192. S2CID 211554648.
  5. ^ a b Covas, Rita; Huyser, Onno & Doutrelant, Claire (2004). "Pygmy Falcon predation of nestlings of their obligate host, the Sociable Weaver". Ostrich. 75 (4): 325–326. doi:10.2989/00306520409485463. ISSN 0030-6525. S2CID 85568509.
  6. ^ Lowney, Anthony M; Flower, Tom P; Thomson, Robert L (Jun 2020). "Kalahari skinks eavesdrop on sociable weavers to manage predation by pygmy falcons and expand their realized niche presence". Behavioral Ecology. 31 (5): 1094–1102. doi:10.1093/beheco/araa057.
  7. ^ Lowney, Anthony M.; Bolopo, Diana; Krochuk, Billi A.; Thomson, Robert L. (2020-11-03). "The Large Communal Nests of Sociable Weavers Provide Year-Round Insulated Refuge for Weavers and Pygmy Falcons". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 8. doi:10.3389/fevo.2020.570006. ISSN 2296-701X.
  8. ^ a b Krochuk, Billi A; Bolopo, Diana; Lowney, Anthony M; Meyers, Paul R; Spottiswoode, Claire N; Raman, Rajendra MG; Thomson, Robert L (2018-10-02). "Why defaecate on your doorstep? Investigating an unusual behaviour in Africa's smallest falcon". Ostrich. 89 (4): 307–314. doi:10.2989/00306525.2018.1529001. ISSN 0030-6525. S2CID 92234468.
  9. ^ Lowney, Anthony; Green, Kelsey; Ngomane, Bonginkosi P; Thomson, Robert L (2017). "Mortal Combat: Intraspecific Killing by an African Pygmy Falcon (Polihierax semitorquatus) to Acquire New Mate and Territory". Journal of Raptor Research. 51 (1): 89–91. doi:10.3356/JRR-16-64.1. S2CID 91009234.
  10. ^ Bolopo, Diana; Lowney, A; Thomson, Robert L. (2019). "Helpers improve fledgling body condition in bigger broods of cooperatively breeding African pygmy falcon". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 73 (4): 1–9. doi:10.1007/s00265-018-2630-3. S2CID 59259520.
  11. ^ Spottiswoode, Claire; Herrmann, Eric; Rasa, O. Anne E. & Sapsford, Colin W. (2004). "Co-operative breeding in the Pygmy Falcon Polihierax semitorquatus". Ostrich. 75 (4): 322–324. doi:10.2989/00306520409485462. ISSN 0030-6525. S2CID 84652310.

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Pygmy falcon: Brief Summary

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The pygmy falcon (Polihierax semitorquatus) or African pygmy falcon is a bird of prey native to eastern and southern Africa. It is the only species placed in the genus Polihierax. It is the smallest bird of prey on the African continent.

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