Black Mullet

The communication and perception of striped mullet has not been reported. They are likely to use chemical and visual cues.

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical

Striped mullet are not listed as endangered or vulnerable with the World Conservation Union (IUCN), CITES, or the U.S. Endangered Species Act. These are common and abundant fish.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

The eggs are transparent and pale yellow, non-adhesive, and spherical with an average diameter of 0.72 mm. Each egg contains an oil globule, making it positively buoyant. Hatching occurs about 48 hours after fertilization, releasing larvae approximately 2.4 mm in length. These larvae have no mouth or paired fins. At 5 days of age, they are approximately 2.8 mm long. The jaws become well-defined and the fin buds begin to develop. At 16 to 20 mm in length, the larvae migrate to inshore waters and estuaries. At 35 to 45 mm, the adipose eyelid is obvious, and by 50 mm it covers most of the eye. At this time the mullet is considered to be a juvenile. These juveniles are capable of osmoregulation, being able to tolerate salinities of 0 to 35 ppt. They spend the remainder of their first year in coastal waters, salt marshes, and estuaries. In autumn, they often move to deeper water while the adults migrate offshore to spawn. However, some young mullet overwinter in estuaries. After this first year of life, mullet inhabit a variety of habitats including the ocean, salt marshes, estuaries, and fresh water rivers and creeks (Bester 2004).

No negative effects on humans have been reported for striped mullet.

Striped mullet are regarded as an excellent food fish. They are also used as bait for a variety of fishes, including billfish, commonly bringing a higher price as bait than as food fish. These fish are prized for their roe. Striped mullet are marketed fresh, dried, salted, and frozen with the roe sold fresh or smoked. This fish is also used in Chinese medicinal practices. It is a very important commercial fish in many other parts of the world (Bester 2004).

Positive Impacts: food ; source of medicine or drug

Striped mullet are an ecologically important link in the energy flow within marine communities. They serve as prey for their predators. Striped mullet are hosts for many parasites including flagellates, ciliates, myxosporidians, monogenean and digenean trematodes, nematodes, acanthocephalans, leeches, argulids, copepods, and isopods (Bester 2004).

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• Flagellata
• Ciliata
• Myxosporidea
• Monogenea
• Digenea
• Nematoda
• Acanthocephala
• Hirudinidae
• Argulidae
• Copepoda
• Isopoda

Mullet are diurnal feeders, consuming mainly zooplankton, dead plant matter, and detritus. Mullet have thick-walled gizzard-like segments in their stomach along with a long gastrointestinal tract that enables them to feed on detritus.

They are an ecologically important link in the energy flow within estuarine communities. Feeding by sucking up the top layer of sediments, striped mullet remove detritus and microalgae. They also pick up some sediments which function to grind food in the gizzard-like portion of the stomach. Mullet also graze on epiphytes and epifauna from seagrasses as well as ingest surface scum containing microalgae at the air-water interface. Larval striped mullet feed primarily on microcrustaceans. One study found copepods, mosquito larvae, and plant debris in the stomach contents of larvae under 35 mm in length. The amount of sand and detritus in the stomach contents increases with length indicating that more food is ingested from the bottom substrate as these fish mature (Bester 2004).

Animal Foods: insects; aquatic crustaceans; zooplankton

Plant Foods: algae

Other Foods: detritus

Primary Diet: planktivore ; detritivore

Mugil cephalus occurs in the coastal waters of the tropical and subtropical zones of all seas. Striped mullet are found in the western Atlantic Ocean, from Nova Scotia, Canada south to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico. They are absent in the Bahamas and the Caribbean Sea (Robins and Ray 1986). In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, striped mullet occur from the Bay of Biscay (France) to South Africa, including the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea (Thomson 1951). The eastern Pacific Ocean range includes southern California south to Chile (Eschmeyer et al. 1983).

Biogeographic Regions: indian ocean (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Introduced , Native ); mediterranean sea (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: cosmopolitan

Mugil cephalus are found in highly salty to fresh waters that are warm or temperate from 8 to 24 C. They spend a great deal of time close to shore around the mouths of streams and rivers or in brackish bays, inlets, and lagoons with sand or mud bottoms (Texas Parks 2005). They often enter estuaries and freshwater environments. Adult mullet have been found in waters ranging from 0 ppt to 75 ppt salinity. Adults form huge schools near the surface over sandy or muddy bottoms and dense vegetation (Bester 2004).

Range depth: 0 to 120 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; saltwater or marine ; freshwater

Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; rivers and streams; coastal ; brackish water

Other Habitat Features: estuarine

The lifespan of striped mullet is seven years for males and eight years for females, with a probable average lifespan of five years. The oldest striped mullet on record is one that lived 13 years (Texas Parks 2005).

Range lifespan
Status: wild: 13 (high) years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 4 to 7 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 5 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 11.0 years.

The maximum length of striped mullet is 120 cm, with a maximum weight of 8 kg. The body of striped mullet is subcylindrical and anteriorly compressed. They have a small, terminal mouth with inconspicuous teeth and a blunt nose. The lips are thin, with a bump at the tip of the lower lip. The adipose eyelid is prominent with only a narrow slit over the pupil. The body is elongate and the head is slightly wider than deep. Pectoral fins are short, not reaching the first dorsal fin. The origin of the second dorsal fin is posterior to the origin of the anal fin. The lateral line is not visible. This mullet is often confused with white mullet, Mugil curema. However, white mullet have scales extending onto the soft dorsal and anal fins while striped mullet do not. They may also be identified based on the anal ray fin counts of 8 for striped mullet and 9 for white mullet. The body is grayish olive to grayish brown, with olive-green or bluish tints and sides fading to silvery white towards the belly. Dark longitudinal lines, formed by dark spots at the center of each scale on the upper half of the body, run the length of the body. Young fish smaller than 15 cm in length lack stripes. There is a large dark blotch at the base of the pectoral fin. The pigmentation in the iris is dispersed and brown, a character that also helps to distinguish it from M. curema. The mouth is triangular in shape when viewed from above, with small, close-set teeth arranged in several rows on the jaws (Bester 2004).

Range mass: 8 (high) kg.

Range length: 120 (high) cm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

Major predators of striped mullet include larger fish, birds, and marine mammals. Spotted seatrout, Atractoscion aequidens, feed on mullet up to 13.8 to 35 cm long. Off the coast of Florida, sharks often feed on large mullet. Pelicans and other aquatic birds as well as dolphins also prey on striped mullet. Humans are also significant predators of striped mullet (Bester 2004).

Known Predators:

• spotted seatrout (Atractoscion aequidens)
• humans (Homo sapiens)
• sharks (Chondrichthyes)
• pelicans (Pelecanidae)
• dolphins (Delphinidae)

Striped mullet are catadromous, that is, they spawn in saltwater yet spend most of their lives in freshwater. During the autumn and winter months, adult mullet migrate far offshore in large aggregations to spawn. In the Gulf of Mexico, mullet have been observed spawning 65 to 80 km offshore in water over 1,000 m deep. In other locations, spawning has been reported along beaches as well as offshore.

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Estimated fecundity of striped mullet is 0.5 to 2.0 million eggs per female, depending upon the size of the individual (Bester 2004). Female mullet reach sexual maturity in their fourth year, when they are between 40 to 42 cm. Males mature in their third year, once they reach a size of 33 to 38 cm. The minimum spawning size of females is between 31 to 34 cm. Striped mullet are oviparous fish (Hill 2004). Beginning in the early fall, large schools of mullet aggregate in the lower reaches of estuaries and at river mouths in preparation for offshore migration to spawning grounds. Environmental cues such as falling water temperatures, passage of cold fronts and falling barometric pressure are thought to trigger aggregation and subsequent migration. Spawning occurs in deep, offshore waters from mid-October through late January, with peak spawning occurring in November and December. Larvae and prejuveniles then migrate to inshore estuaries where they inhabit shallow, warm water in the intertidal zone. Mugil cephalus are isochronal spawners, with all oocytes reaching maturity at the same time. However, based on the size of the female body cavity, it is unlikely that a female's entire store of eggs is hydrated at the same time in preparation for spawning. Rather, females are likely to hydrate eggs in batches and spawn on successive evenings until their supply of yolked eggs is depleted (Hill 2004).

Breeding interval: Striped mullets breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Spawning occurs in autumn and winter months.

Range number of offspring: 500,000 to 2,000,000.

Average gestation period: 48 hours.

Range time to independence: 0 to 0 minutes.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); broadcast (group) spawning; oviparous

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 730 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 730 days.

Once eggs are laid, adult striped mullet do not provide any further parental care (Texas Parks 2005).

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female)

Caught with beach seines, gillnets, castnets, liftnets, barriernets, trammel nets, and other artisanal gear. Can be used in aquaculture if stock is collected from the sea. The total catch reported for this species to FAO for 1999 was 27 306 t. The countries with the largest catches were Korea, Republic of (9 678 t) and Venezuela (5 151 t). Marketed fresh dried, salted, and frozen; roe sold fresh or smoked.

Body cilindrical, robust. Head broad, its width more than width of mouth cleft; adipose eyelid well developed, covering most of pupil; upper lip thin, without papillae, labial teeth of upper jaw small, straight, dense, usually in several rows; mouth cleft ending below posterior nostril. Two dorsal fins; the first with 4 spines; the second with 8-9 soft rays; origin of first dorsal fin nearer to snout tip than to caudal fin base; origin of second dorsal fin at vertical between a quarter and a half along anal fin base. Anal fin with 8 soft finrays. Pectoral fins with 16-19 rays; pectoral axillary about one-third length of fin. Pyloric caeca 2. Scales in leteral series 36-45. Colour back blue/green, flanks and belly pale or silvery; scales on back and flanks usually streaked to form longitudinal stripes; dark pectoral axillary blotch.

A cosmopolitan species from tropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic (from Bay Biscay southward, also whole of Mediterranean and Black Sea), Pacific, and Indian Ocean. Introduced into Caspian Sea.

Maximum 120 cm; common 35-50 cm.

Occurs at temperatures ranging from 8-247deg; C in calm waters close to shore, around mouths of stream and inlets, and brackish bays and lagoons, rivers and harbors.Usually found in schools over sand ot mud bottom.Mainly diurnal, feeds on zooplancton, benthic organisms and detritus. Also takes diatom algae and small invertebrates. Feeds occasionally at the surface.

Diagnosis: body stout, cylindrical in cross-section, slightly compressed; head broad and flattened (Ref. 57400). Well developed adipose eyelid (Ref. 40476, 57400) covering most of pupil (Ref. 57400). Upper lip thin and without papillae (Ref. 57400), with 1-2 outer rows of small, moderately close-set, unicuspid teeth and up to 6 inner rows of smaller, bicuspid teeth (Ref. 81659). Lower lip with outer row of small unicuspid teeth and sometimes 1 or more inner rows of smaller, bicuspid teeth (Ref. 81659). Hind end of upper jaw reaching a vertical line from anterior eye margin; maxillary pad not visible below corner of mouth when closed; origin of 1st dorsal fin nearer to snout tip than to caudal-fin base (Ref. 57400). Anterior parts and bases of 2nd dorsal and anal fins with a moderately dense coverage of scales (Ref. 57400, 81659). Pectoral axillary process (Ref. 57400). 13-15 scale rows between origins of dorsal and pelvic fins (Ref. 57400, 81659). Pelvic fins, anal fin, and lower lobe of caudal fin yellowish in specimens from the tropical Atlantic coast of Africa (Ref. 57400, 81659).Description: lips thin; pectoral fins short (when folded forward does not reach eye); anal spines 3 in adults, anal soft rays 8 in adults, 9 in larvae (Ref. 40476). 36-42 (usually 38 or 39) scales in longitudinal series (excluding scales on caudal fin base); 13-15 scales between pelvic and first dorsal fins; anal fin with 3 spines and 8 (rarely 9) segmented rays in adults (first spine very short and usually hidden by overlying scales), usually 2 spines and 9 soft rays in juveniles

Can survive in freshwater but does not breed in it (Ref. 4967). In some areas such as Shark Bay and the Houtman Abrolhos in Western Australia, adults live in marine waters throughout the year. This behaviour seems to occur only where estuarine and freshwater habitats are limited (Ref. 28722). A small proportion (probably about 5%) (Ref. 28722) of older juveniles may leave the estuaries and migrate along the beaches in early summer. The migration may be associated with flooding of rivers and is referred to as the 'hardgut' migration because the mullets' guts are empty (Ref. 28722). Migrating sea mullet do not feed during either the 'hardgut' migration or spawning migration (Ref. 6390). Feed on zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, microalgae, and detritus (Ref. 11889). Undergo ontogenic shift in diet (Ref. 41769). Small mullet (< 4 cm SL) feed exclusively on sediment by browsing. Large mullet (< 4 cm SL) have been observed to feed by grazing on the sediment (Ref. 41769). Changes in the feeding habits from planktonic organisms and migratory zooplankton to meiobenthos which takes place between 0.1 and 0.2 cm length, and a switch from meiobenthos to microbenthos between 0.15 and 0.25 cm length (Ref. 56101). Sea mullet normally feed close to the river bed in shallow water, but do move throughout the water column in river channels and individuals often jump high out of the water (Ref. 6390). Sea mullet have a strong tendency to school as juveniles and during the spawning season as adults. Feeding schools of juveniles commonly disperse over sand and mud flats of estuaries during high tide and reform on the ebb tide (Ref. 28722). Presence of sharp pointed teeth that enable the species to select fine material (Ref. 74863).In southwestern Australia, Mugil cephalus is a dominant finfish in the middle and upper estuaries especially in winter and spring - up to 95% of frequency of occurrence (Lonengan & Potter 1990). Has a short, well-defined juvenile recruitment period; although found in freshwater, occurs in far greater numbers in all areas of estuaries and is common in the sea (Ref. 74748, 74749). Gill-raker filaments were found in the stomach captured using gill net. Mullets struggle to be free of the constricting meshes, food is often regurgitated at an early stage, subsequent gasping of oxygen would then easily cause gill-rakers, broken loose in the struggle, to be swalowed (Ref. 74739). Also Refs. 12676, 26213.

Dorsal spines (total): 5; Dorsal soft rays (total): 7 - 9; Analspines: 3; Analsoft rays: 8 - 9

Catadromous. Migrating from freshwater to the sea to spawn, e.g., European eels. Subdivision of diadromous. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.

One spawning aggregation was observed in detail. This consisted of five fish, a female and four males. Males would press against the female, which took place as the entire group moved along slowly, facing into a fairly strong tidal flow.

Streptococcal Infection 2. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Edwardsiellosis. Bacterial diseases

Haploporus Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Neoechinorhynchus Infestation 5. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Epitheliocystis. Bacterial diseases

Carassotrema Infestation. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Amyloodinium Infestation. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Caligus Infestation 2. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Caligus Infestation 1. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Ergasilus Disease 8. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Sphaerospora Infection. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Dactylosoma Infection 2. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Ichthyophonus Disease. Fungal diseases

Pararhadinorhynchus Infestation 1. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)

Adults are found in coastal waters (Ref. 2850, 44894, 57400), often entering estuaries and rivers (Ref. 2847, 3573, 11230, 44894, 57400), sometimes far-up-river, lagoons and hypersaline environments (Ref. 57400). They are usually in schools over sand or mud bottom (Ref. 2850), between 0 and 10 m, occurring equally in tropical, subtropical and temperate waters (Project MUGIL). They are mainly diurnal, feeding on detritus, micro-algae and benthic organisms (Ref. 56548, 74902, 74760). Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 3.0 cm SL (Ref. 59043). Reproduction takes place at sea, at various times of the year depending on the location (Ref. 74907, Amour). Adults form schools and migrate offshore to spawn and developing larvae migrate back inshore (Ref. 81659). There is absence of an obligatory freshwater phase in the life cycle (Ref. 74752). Females spawn 0.8 to 2.6 million eggs which develop at sea (Ref. 74912, Chen & Su 1986). Sexually mature at 3 to 4 years (Ref. 74902). Maximum length reported as 120 cm SL (Ref. 7399, 57400, 81659) remains to be confirmed (Project MUGIL). Maximum weight reported as 12 kg (Ref. 56527) seems too high for the area and remains to be confirmed (Project MUGIL). Widely cultivated in freshwater and brackish ponds (Ref. 2847, Jackson 1984, Liao 1981). Marketed fresh, dried, salted, and frozen; roe sold fresh or smoked (Ref. 9321); also used in Chinese medicine (Ref. 12166).

fisheries: highly commercial; aquaculture: commercial; gamefish: yes; bait: occasionally; price category: very high; price reliability: reliable: based on ex-vessel price for this species

分布於全世界各溫、熱帶海域的沿岸，臺灣四周海域亦均有產。

每年冬季是主要漁期，可用流刺網、圍網、定置網等漁法捕獲，為高經濟價值魚種，母魚魚卵可乾製為烏魚子，價格昂貴，俗稱「烏金」，是桌上佳餚，雄魚精巢亦可供食用。因可完全養殖，故亦為台灣淺海養殖之重要魚種。

體延長呈紡綞形，前部圓形而後部側扁，背無隆脊。頭短。吻短；唇薄，下唇有一高聳的小丘和1列的唇齒，上唇有1-6列的唇齒，位於外側的唇齒是單尖型，而在內側者是雙尖型。眼圓，前側位；脂眼瞼發達，脂眼瞼長和眼徑比3.2-4.1。口小，亞腹位；上頜骨直走而不彎曲，末端近於口角後緣；牙細弱。在稚魚期為圓鱗，隨著成長而變為具有多列顆粒狀櫛鱗；頭部及體側的側線發達，數目達13-15條，位居魚類世界之冠。鰓耙繁密細長。背鰭兩個，第一背鰭硬棘4根，第二背鰭硬棘1根，軟條8條；胸鰭上側位，具16軟條，基部具藍斑駁，腋鱗發達；腹鰭腹位，具1鰭棘和5軟條；腹鰭腹位，具硬棘1根，軟條5條，腋鱗發達；臀鰭具硬棘3根，軟條8條；尾鰭分叉。新鮮標本體背橄欖綠，體側銀白色，腹部漸次轉為白色，體側有6或7條暗褐色帶；眼球的虹膜具金黃色緣。除腹鰭為暗黃色外，各鰭有黑色小點。胸鰭基部的上半部有一個藍斑。

屬廣溫性魚類，從水溫8-24℃的海域均見，主要棲息環境為沿岸沙泥底水域。幼魚時期喜歡在河口、紅樹林等半淡鹹水海域生活，隨著成長而游向外洋。以浮游動物、底棲生物及有機碎屑為食。臺灣在每年冬至過後，烏魚會洄游南下產卵，而經過台灣海峽，因此有「信魚」之稱。雌魚一次可產下五到七百萬顆卵。

The flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) is an important food fish species in the mullet family Mugilidae. It is found in coastal tropical and subtropical waters worldwide. Its length is typically 30 to 75 centimetres (12 to 30 in). It is known with numerous English names, including the flathead mullet, striped mullet (US, American Fisheries Society name), black mullet, bully mullet, common mullet, grey mullet, sea mullet and mullet, among others.

The flathead grey mullet is a mainly diurnal coastal species that often enters estuaries and rivers. It usually schools over sand or mud bottoms, feeding on zooplankton, dead plant matter and detritus. The adult fish normally feed on algae in fresh water. The species is euryhaline, meaning that the fish can acclimate to different levels of salinity.

Occurs at temperatures ranging from 8-24°C (Ref. 4944) in calm waters close to shore, around mouths of streams and inlets, and brackish bays and harbors. Usually found in schools over sand or mud bottom (Ref. 2850). Mainly diurnal, feeds on zooplankton, benthic organisms and detritus. Also takes diatom algae and small invertebrates (Ref. 9072). Feeds occasionally at the surface (Ref. 9987). Can be used in aquaculture if stock is collected from the sea (Ref. 4967). Marketed fresh, dried,salted, and frozen; roe sold fresh or smoked (Ref. 9312).

Feeds on zooplankton, benthic organisms, detritus

Western Atlantic: Nova Scotia, Canada to Brazil; Cape Cod to southern Gulf of Mexico; absent in the Bahamas and most of West Indies and Caribbean

nektonic

Occasionally found in Canadian Atlantic waters. Coastal species, found to depths of 120 m and often enter estuaries and rivers.