Morphologic characters that have been used to segregate these populations into species and/or varieties include: (1) degree and persistence of tomentum; (2) phyllaries with greenish, light brown, or dark brown margins; (3) shapes of capitulescences (rounded or flat-topped); and (4) degrees of leaf dissection and shapes of lobes.
While examining specimens for this treatment, two general trends were noted: (1) Plants growing either at high latitudes or high elevations tend to have darker colored margins on the phyllaries. (2) Plants at high latitudes or elevations or from extreme desert locations tend to be more densely lanate than plants from less extreme habitats. These are only trends; variations in local populations due to local environmental conditions are to be expected.
An eco-morphotype adapted to the Athabasca sand dunes of northern Saskatchewan has been known as A. megacephala or A. millefolium var. megacephala and has been treated as a taxon of special concern in Canada (V. L. Harms 1999).
The initial surge of common yarrow is probably caused by
extensive rhizome sprouting; mineral soil exposure and the
resulting favorable seedbed; less competition from tree,
grass and shrub cover; and nutrient release [28,53].
A burn was conducted each April for at least 24 years on a
rough fescue (Festuca scabrella) grassland in a
quaking aspen parkland in east-central Alberta. Average
frequency and canopy cover for common yarrow were as
follows [3]:
Density and crown area of common yarrow
(per 180,000 in2)following an August wildfire
of moderate severity in a northeastern California range
dominated by bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata)
and various perennial bunchgrasses were as follows [23]:
Productivity values (kg/ha) of common yarrow before and after
a late August fire in western Wyoming quaking aspen communities
are listed below for plots of different burn intensities [9]:
On ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir communities in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, common yarrow cover
and frequency were higher on sites that had been burned 4 years previously than on thinned,
thinned-and-burned, or control sites. Common yarrow was determined to be
an indicator species for burned sites (P≤0.05). For further information on the effects of thinning and burning
treatments on common yarrow and 48 other species, see the Research Project Summary
of Youngblood and others' [50] study.
For further information on prescribed fire use and common yarrow response to fire, see Fire Case Studies,
Lyon's Research Paper
(Lyon 1966),
Hamilton's Research Paper
(Hamilton 2006b),
and the following Research Project Summaries:
Common yarrow is a perennial forb 11 to 40 inches (30-100 cm) in height with extensive rhizomes. It has few to numerous erect stems. The basal rosette of leaves may remain green throughout the winter [43]. Plants grow in a somewhat scattered fashion and seldom form pure stands in areas larger than 5 square meters [69]. Typical European Achillea millefolium is hexaploid with flat leaves. Native forms are mostly tetraploid, with narrow leaf-segments disposed in various planes so that the leaf is 3-dimensional [33].
McLean [49] reported that in a Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forest zone in British Columbia, the fibrous roots and rhizomes of yarrow grew mostly in the duff layer or between it and the mineral soil.
The life cycle of common yarrow in grasslands is completed by the onset of the summer drought and fire season in July [6]. Following fire, regeneration is from rapid rhizome spread [72] and wind dispersal of seeds onto burned sites from adjacent unburned areas [41].
Common yarrow occurs in plant communities with a variety of FIRE REGIMES. The range of fire intervals reported for some species that dominate communities where common yarrow occurs are listed below. To learn more about the FIRE REGIMES in these communities, refer to the FEIS summary for that species, under "FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS."
Community dominant Range of fire interval (yr) interior ponderosa pine 20-42 (Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum) Rocky Mt. Douglas-fir 10-30 (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) quaking aspen 7-10 (Populus tremuloides) rough fescue 5-10 (Festuca altaica)Common yarrow's rhizomes and mycorrhizae are usually only slightly damaged by fire [10,38,60], although common yarrow is susceptible to fire-kill and reduction by severe fire [51].
Common yarrow is not highly flammable. Out of 14 species commonly found in boreal forests, common yarrow has the lowest potential ignitability based on chemical characteristics measured on live stem, live leaf and dead leaf tissues. These rankings rely primarily on total ash, silica-free ash and energy content [40]. Ignitability is measured as time to ignition.
Common yarrow varies greatly in forage value, depending on locality and seasonal development. It is generally unpalatable, although domestic livestock and wildlife occasionally consume the flowers. Cattle and horses usually do not graze common yarrow, but bighorn sheep, pronghorn, and deer may use it. They most often graze the flowerheads. common yarrow provides fair forage for domestic sheep and goats [24,43]. The average summer use is 20% for cattle and horses and 40% for domestic sheep and goats [58]. Common yarrow is an important food of 4- to 8-week-old sage grouse chicks [16].
Common yarrow contains volatile oils, alkaloids, and glycosides but is not generally considered a toxic plant because it is so seldom consumed by livestock. Milk from cows consuming common yarrow has a "disagreeable" flavor [64].
Native Americans used tea made from common yarrow to relieve ear-, tooth-, and headaches; as an eyewash; to reduce swelling; and as a tonic or stimulant. common yarrow varies in taste and in potency depending on where it grows and at what stage of growth it is in. The best time to collect yarrow for tea is right before the flowers are produced, using only the new succulent leaves [34]. During the Civil War, common yarrow was widely used to treat wounds and became known as "soldiers' woundwort." An ethanol extract of common yarrow has mosquito- repelling properties [67].
Common yarrow is used for summer and winter bouquets. When cut fresh and kept in water, common yarrow flavors the air with an aromatic spiciness [43,64].
Common yarrow has a long flowering season throughout its range, which varies as follows [19]:
State Earliest Most Frequent Latest Month Month Month --------------------------------------------------- CO May May Jun ID Apr May Jun MT May May Jun UT Apr May Jun WY May Jun Aug
Average dates of different growth stages at different elevations in Utah were recorded as follows [22]:
Elev. Flower buds Flowers Seeds Seeds Plant (ft) evident in bloom ripe disseminated dried --------------------------------------------------------------- 7,150 May 30 Jun 29 Sept 28 Sept 19 Oct 10 7,655 Jun 01 Jul 05 Aug 26 Sept 24 Oct 13 8,450 Jun 06 Jul 10 Sept 04 --- Sept 25 9,000 Jun 18 Jul 15 Sept 08 Sept 29 Oct 01 10,100 Jun 25 Jul 21 Sept 20 Oct 08 Oct 08Average heights (cm) of plants at various dates and altitudes from Ephraim Canyon in Utah were as follows (1925-1934) [22]:
Alt.(ft) May 1 May 15 Jun 1 Jun 15 Jul 1 Jul 15 ----------------------------------------------------- 7,150 4.9 9.1 16.2 26.2 30.8 33.9 7,655 3.9 8.0 12.9 20.0 28.4 31.1 8,450 1.4 4.6 7.7 15.8 24.2 29.3 9,000 -- 0.5 3.5 7.9 19.0 28.3 10,100 -- -- -- 5.1 11.1 19.9Over a 10-year period in Saskatchewan, Canada, flowering dates were recorded for yarrow [18]:
Mean ------------First flowering date----------- Latest date flowering earliest date & yr latest date & yr mean in flower period ------------------ ---------------- ----- -------- ------ May 28/1946 Jun 30/1950 Jun 19 Sept 23 78 daysFire results in fragmentation of common yarrow's rhizomes stimulating regeneration [15]. Cover and frequency of common yarrow generally increase 1 to 2 years after fire but not with any consistent pattern [4,13,14,32,40,56,71]. After initially increasing in cover, common yarrow may decrease to unburned levels as early as 3 years after fire [17,37,65,75]. Production doubled within 3 to 4 years postfire near Missoula, Montana [6] and other ponderosa pine/mountain grassland ecosystems [32,69]. In another study of fire effects in ponderosa pine, common yarrow increased by 0.37 stem/m in 6 years, a negligible amount [55].
Common yarrow ground layer on the Stanislaus National Forest, 15 months after the 2013 Rim Fire.Common yarrow is responsive to season of burning. Late spring burning usually reduces common yarrow [4,12,66].
Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE REGIMES: Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Common yarrow regenerates from fragments of rhizomes and from colonization through short-distance (1-2 m) wind dispersal of seeds [15,47,61]. In disturbed soils, fragmented rhizomes regenerate shoots which can emerge from soil depths as great as 12 inches (30 cm). In undisturbed soil the rhizomes remain attached to the parent plant, forming new plants at the rhizome apices [15].
The fruit is a small achenes weighing about 0.17 mg. They are produced in large numbers. Several thousand achenes may be produced per flowering stem. The viability of freshly shed seeds exceeds 90%. Common yarrow seed showed 41% germination after 9 years in dry storage [15].
Achillea millefolium, commonly known as yarrow (/ˈjæroʊ/) or common yarrow, is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. Other common names include old man's pepper, devil's nettle, sanguinary, milfoil, soldier's woundwort, and thousand seal.
The plant is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in Asia, Europe, and North America.[2] It has been introduced as a feed for livestock in New Zealand and Australia.
Achillea millefolium is an erect, herbaceous, perennial plant that produces one to several stems 0.2–1 metre (8–40 inches) in height, and has a spreading rhizomatous growth form. Leaves are evenly distributed along the stem, with the leaves near the middle and bottom of the stem being the largest. The leaves have varying degrees of hairiness (pubescence). The leaves are 5–20 centimetres (2–8 in) long, bipinnate or tripinnate, almost feathery, and arranged spirally on the stems. The leaves are cauline, and more or less clasping,[3] being more petiolate near the base.[4]
The inflorescence has 4 to 9 phyllaries and contains ray and disk flowers which are white to pink, blooming from March to October.[5] There are generally 3 to 8 ray flowers, which are 3 millimetres (1⁄8 in) long[5] and ovate to round. The tiny disk flowers range from 10 to 40.[5] The inflorescence is produced in a flat-topped capitulum cluster and the inflorescences are visited by many insects, featuring a generalized pollination system.[6] The small achene-like fruits are called cypsela.[3]
The plant has a sweet scent similar to that of chrysanthemums,[2] so powerful that it may be irritating to some.[5]
The dark blue essential oil of yarrow contains chemicals called proazulenes.[7]
Chamazulene and δ-Cadinol are chemical compounds found in A. millefolium. The chromophore of azulene was discovered in yarrow and wormwood and named in 1863 by Septimus Piesse.
Yarrow contains isovaleric acid, salicylic acid, asparagine, sterols, and flavonoids.[8] It also contains phenolic acids such as gallic acid, 3, 4-dihydroxy benzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, sinapic acid, ferulic acid, cinnamic acid and flavonoid such as myricetin, hesperidin, quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, rutin, hyperoside.[9]
The several varieties and subspecies include:
The genus name Achillea is derived from mythical Greek character Achilles, who reportedly carried it with his army to treat battle wounds.[17] The specific epithet millefolium as well as the common names milfoil and thousand leaf come from the featherlike leaves which are minutely divided.[17]
The English name yarrow comes from its Saxon (Old English) name gearwe, which is related to both the Dutch word gerw (alternately yerw)[18] and the Old High German word garawa.[19] In the eastern counties it may be called yarroway.[18] In France, it was called 'herbe de St. Joseph' after a Christian revision of the Achilles story, in which Jesus uses the plant to heal his adoptive father. It has also been called 'carpenter's weed' in this regard.[20][18]
Other names include arrowroot, nose bleed,[18] death flower, eerie, hundred leaved grass, knyghten, old man's mustard, sanguinary,[18] seven-year's love, snake's grass, soldier, and gordaldo.
In New Mexico and southern Colorado, it is called plumajillo (Spanish for 'little feather') from its leaf shape and texture.
Yarrow grows from sea level to 3,500 m (11,500 ft) in elevation. Common yarrow is frequently found in the mildly disturbed soil of grasslands and open forests. Active growth occurs in the spring.[2][3]
The plant is native to Eurasia and is found widely from the UK to China.
In North America, both native and introduced genotypes, and both diploid and polyploid plants are found.[21] It is found in every habitat throughout California except the Colorado and Mojave Deserts.[22][23] Common yarrow produces an average yield of 110,000 plants per hectare (43,000/acre), with a total dry weight of 11,800 kg/ha (10,500 pounds per acre).[24]
It has been introduced as a feed for livestock in New Zealand[25] and Australia, where it is a common weed of both wet and dry areas, such as roadsides, meadows, fields and coastal places.[25]
Several cavity-nesting birds, including the common starling, use yarrow to line their nests. Experiments conducted on the tree swallow, which does not use yarrow, suggest that adding yarrow to nests inhibits the growth of parasites.[26]
Achillea millefolium is a food source for many species of insects.
The larvae of the moths Bucculatrix clavenae, B. cristatella, B. fatigatella, B. humiliella, B. latviaella, Cnephasia abrasana, Cochylimorpha elongana, Coleophora argentula, C. carelica, C. ditella, C. expressella, C. follicularis, C. gardesanella, C. millefolii, C. partitella, C. ptarmicia, C. quadristraminella, C. succursella, C. vibicigerella, Depressaria olerella, D. silesiaca, Dichrorampha alpinana (broad-blotch drill), D. petiverella, D. vancouverana (tanacetum root moth), Eupithecia millefoliata (yarrow pug), E. nanata (narrow-winged pug), Gillmeria pallidactyla, Idaea pallidata, Isidiella nickerlii, Loxostege manualis, Phycitodes maritima, P. saxicola, Pyncostola bohemiella, Sophronia sicariellus and Thetidia smaragdaria (Essex emerald) feed on Achillea millefolium in Europe.
The larvae of Chlorochlamys chloroleucaria (blackberry looper), Coleophora quadruplex and Sparganothoides lentiginosana (lentiginos moth) feed on A. millefolium in North America.
Other species of moths with a more cosmopolitan distribution include Aethes smeathmanniana (Smeathmann's aethes moth), Chloroclystis v-ata (v-pug), Choristoneura diversana, Cochylidia richteriana, Epiblema graphana, Eupithecia succenturiata (bordered pug), E. vulgata (common pug), Jordanita budensis and Thiodia citrana (lemon bell). The Noctuid Agrotis stigmosa has also been reared on A. millefolium.[27]
Cassida denticollis, Galeruca tanaceti, Hypocassida subferruginea and Phytoecia virgula are cosmopolitan species of beetles that feed on A. millefolium.
Chrysanthia viridissima is a European species whose adults can be found feeding on pollen and nectar.
Trichodes ornatus (ornate checkered beetle) is a species found in North America whose adults can be found feeding on A. millefolium.
Horistus orientalis is a species of plant bugs that feeds on A. millefolium.
Hedychrum rutilans is a species of cuckoo wasps whose adults can be found feeding on A. millefolium in Europe and North Africa.
Aceria kiefferi (Nalepa, 1891) is a mite that deforms flowers and leaves. external link to gallformers
Achillea millefolium is cultivated as an ornamental plant by many plant nurseries. It is planted in gardens and natural landscaping settings of diverse climates and styles. They include native plant, drought-tolerant, and wildlife gardens. The plant is a frequent component of butterfly gardens. The plant prefers well-drained soil in full sun, but can be grown in less ideal conditions.[28][29][30]
For propagation, seeds require light for germination, so optimal germination occurs when planted no deeper than 6 mm (1⁄4 in). Seeds also require a germination temperature of 18–24 °C (64–75 °F). It has a relatively short life in some situations, but may be prolonged by division in the spring every other year, and planting 30 to 46 cm (12–18 in) apart. It can become invasive.[31]
The species use in traditional gardens has generally been superseded by cultivars with specific 'improved' qualities.[32] Some are used as drought-tolerant lawn replacements, with periodic mowing.[33] The many different ornamental cultivars include: 'Paprika',[34] 'Cerise Queen', 'Red Beauty',[35] 'Red Velvet',[36] 'Saucy Seduction', 'Strawberry Seduction' (red), 'Island Pink' (pink),[37] 'Calistoga' (white),[38] and 'Sonoma Coast' (white).[39] The following are recipients of the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
The many hybrids of this species designated Achillea × taygetea are useful garden subjects,[44] including: 'Appleblossom', 'Fanal', 'Hoffnung', and 'Moonshine'.[45]
Yarrow can cause allergic skin rashes.[46] It reportedly can induce menstruation and cause miscarriages.[47]
According to the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, yarrow is toxic to dogs, cats, and horses, causing increased urination, vomiting, diarrhea and dermatitis.[48] When consumed by cows, an unfavorable flavor is given to their milk.[49] In a standard rodent model for reproductive toxicity, aqueous extracts of yarrow produced a significant increase in the percentage of abnormal sperm.[50]
A. millefolium was used in traditional medicine, in part due to its astringent properties and the mild laxative effect of its leaves.[18][51] Yarrow and its North American varieties were traditionally used by many Native American nations.[52] The Navajo historically considered it a "life medicine" and chewed the plant for toothaches and used its infusions for earaches. The Miwok in California used the plant as an analgesic and head cold remedy.[52] Native American nations used the plant for healing cuts and abrasions, relief from earaches and throat infections, as well as for an eyewash.[53] Common yarrow was used by Plains indigenous peoples to reduce pain or fever and aid sleep.[52]
In the early 20th century, some Ojibwe people used a decoction of yarrow leaves on hot stones and inhaled it to treat headaches,[54] or applied decoctions of the root onto skin for its stimulating effect.[55]
The entire plant is reportedly edible and nutritious,[47] but it is advised not to consume much.[56] The foliage is pungent; both its leaves and flowers are bitter and astringent.[18] The leaves can be eaten young; raw, they can be added to salad.[56] The leaves, with an aniseed-grass flavour, can be brewed as tea.[57]
In the Middle Ages, yarrow was part of a herbal mixture known as gruit used in the flavoring of beer prior to the use of hops.[58] The flowers and leaves are used in making some liquors and bitters.[2]
Yarrow is considered an especially useful companion plant, attracting beneficial insects and repelling some pests. It attracts predatory wasps, which drink the nectar and then use insect pests as food for their larvae. Similarly, it attracts ladybirds and hoverflies.[30]
A. millefolium can be planted to combat soil erosion due to the plant's resistance to drought. Before the arrival of monocultures of ryegrass, both grass and pasture contained A. millefolium at a density of about 0.3 kg/ha. One factor for its use in grass mixtures was its deep roots, with leaves rich in minerals, minimizing mineral deficiencies in ruminant feed. It was introduced into New Zealand as a drought-tolerant pasture.[25]
Some pick-up sticks are made of yarrow.
Yarrow can be used for dying wool as it contains apigenin and luteolin. Depending on the mordant the color may be green to yellow.[59]
In antiquity, the plant was known as herba militaris for its use in stanching the flow of blood from wounds.[60] Other names implying its historical use in healing—particularly in the military—include bloodwort, knight's milfoil, staunchweed, and, from its use in the United States Civil War, soldier's woundwort.[17] Its use in either starting or stopping nosebleeds led to the common name nosebleed.[18][61] For its association with the Abrahamic devil it was called bad man's plaything, devil's nettle, and devil's plaything.[18] It was called old man's pepper due to its pungent flavor, while the name field hop came from its use in beer making in Sweden.[18]
In the Classical Greek epic Iliad, Homer tells of the centaur Chiron, who conveyed herbal secrets to his human pupils and taught Achilles to use yarrow on the battlegrounds of Troy.[62]
Yarrow and tortoiseshell are considered to be lucky in Chinese tradition.[63]
The stalks are dried and used as a randomising agent in I Ching divination.[64]
In the Hebrides a leaf held against the eyes was sometimes believed to give second sight.[65]
In Sussex and Devonshire superstition, yarrow was used for finding one's real sweetheart. One would pluck yarrow growing on a young man's grave while reciting:
and go to sleep with the yarrow under the pillow.[61]
In a similar tradition in Wicklow, girls would pick yarrow on Hallow Eve and recite:
then retire for the night without speaking and go to sleep with an ounce of yarrow sewn in flannel under the pillow.[61]
In Suffolk a leaf was placed in the nose so it would bleed, while reciting
In Dublin on May Day or the night before, women would place a stocking full of yarrow under their pillow and recite:
In the witchcraft trial of Elspeth Reoch in March 1616, she was alleged to have plucked "melefour," thought to be another name for yarrow, and said "In nomine Patris, Fiili, et Spiritus Sancti" to become able to cure distemper (disorders of the four humours) and impart the faculty of prediction.[61]
Yarrow was thought to bring luck due to being, according to one woman cited by James Britten, "the first herb our Saviour put in His hand when a child."[61] This is apparently a corruption of the Achilles myth.[20]
Leaves
Close-up of leaf
Budding flowers
Flower by a pond, United Kingdom
Field of yarrow in Russia
Flowers in Chelan County, Washington
.jpg)
Close-up of flowers
Extreme close-up of flowers
Dry flowers with Hemiptera
Achenes
Achillea millefolium, commonly known as yarrow (/ˈjæroʊ/) or common yarrow, is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. Other common names include old man's pepper, devil's nettle, sanguinary, milfoil, soldier's woundwort, and thousand seal.
The plant is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in Asia, Europe, and North America. It has been introduced as a feed for livestock in New Zealand and Australia.
